Community Involvement TechniquesFeedback

Backcasting

Backcasting is a method of analysing alternative futures, often energy futures. Its major distinguishing characteristic is a concern with how desirable futures can be attained. It involves working backward from a desired future end point or set of goals to the present to determine the physical feasibility of that particular future and the policy measures that would be required to reach that end point.End points are usually chosen for a time 25 to 50 years in the future.` Paehlke, Robert (1995) Conservation and Environmentalism, An Encyclopedia. New York & London, Garland Publishing Inc.Backcasting is similar to Visioning, however backcasts are not intended to reveal what the future will be, but rather to weigh up a number of possible futures, and decide the implications and preferable options, then to map out steps along the way

- Backcasts are not intended to reveal what the future will likely be, but to indicate the relative feasibility and implications of different policy goals.

- Suggests the implications of likely futures, chosen not on the basis of their likelihood but on the basis of other criteria defined externally to the analysis (e.g. criteria of social or environmental desirability)

- Determines the freedom of action, in a policy sense, with respect to possible futures

- No estimate of likelihood is possible.

- Does not seek to discover the underlying structural features of the world that would cause the future to come about

1.Define future goals and objectives, projecting 25-50 years into the future.

2. Specify the scenario by analyzing the technological and physical characteristics of a path that would lead towards the specified goals.

3. Evaluate the scenario in terms of physical, technological and socioeconomic feasibility and policy implications.

4. Brainstorm ways this desired endpoint can be achieved, working backwards to the present.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Engagement of experts

Recorders

Gophers

Artists/photographer

Audiovisual recording equipment and amplification

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector/screen

Printed public information sheets

Response sheets

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Furniture

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Medium

High

High (innovative)

Holmberg, J. and Robert, K-H. (2000). Backcasting from non-overlapping sustainability principles – a framework for strategic planning. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 7:291-308.

Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a method for developing creative solutions to problems. It works by focusing on a problem, and then having participants come up with as many deliberately unusual solutions as possible and by pushing the ideas as far as possible. During the brainstorming session there is no criticism of ideas - the idea is to open up as many possibilities as possible, and break down preconceptions about the limits of the problem. Once this has been done the results of the brainstorming session can be analysed and the best solutions can be explored either using further brainstorming or more conventional solutions.Brainstorming is useful in warming up a workshop and creating a sense of unity between workshop participants by `breaking the ice` between them.

- Can encourage creative solutions.

- Can serve as a warm-up exercise.

- Can replace conventional participation tools where such tools are Inappropriate.

- Can assist in developing unity between participants.

- Ideas are unrestrained and may not be achievable.

- Sessions may be difficult to record.

- Realistic outcomes are not guaranteed.

- Allow time to engage jury & facilitator, put together briefing papers and contact `experts`.

- Jury can take up to four days to consider its `verdict`.

1. Select participants from as wide a range of disciplines with as broad a range of experience as possible. This brings many more creative ideas to the session.

2. Select a leader for the session, who can outline any criteria that must be met; keep the session on course; encourage an enthusiastic, uncritical attitude among brainstormers; and encourage participation by all.

3. Set times for the whole brainstorming session, and for generating ideas.

4. Keep fresh ideas coming, and welcome creativity.

5. Do not allow any one train of thought dominate for too long

6. Do not criticise or evaluate during the brainstorming session. (Criticism stifles creativity and spoils the fun.)

7. Record ideas no matter how unrealistic, until there are no more ideas, or the time allocated for generating ideas is up.

8. Record all ideas on a whiteboard or projector so that all participants can see all the ideas.

9. Encourage `spark off` associations from other people`s ideas, or combinations of ideas.

10. Either, evaluate solutions at the end of the brainstorming session to agree on the most practical way forward, or

11. Record the session either as notes, tape recording or video for later evaluation.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Small (1 to 10)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Exchange Techniques

Methods of recording ideas where whole group can view them

Expertise - high

Venue large enough for comfort

Facilitator.

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Low

Low (traditional)

www.brainstorming.co.uk (accessed in 2004)

Briefings

Briefings are often a way of providing information on a specific issue or initiative to a special audience. The presentation may be delivered by an industry, government or organisation`s representative, and is typically followed by detailed discussions in a question and answer format. Briefings are useful as a public relations activity when an identified group is going to be affected by a proposal. The use of existing meetings of social and civic clubs and organizations as a forum for briefings to inform and educate is often used. (Ontario Public Consultation Guide 1994). Briefings may provide some preliminary ideas of community issues based on questions and feedback at the briefing. (See Case Study Community Consultation, where a participant observer briefed all relevant stakeholders on options as part of a long-term public consultation process.)

- Used when stakeholders are identified as being more directly affected by an issue than the general population and you want to inform them first.

- Provides a forum to interact directly with a particular group and allows for detailed explanation of issues, circumstances and implications unique to the group

- Allows sponsor to retain control of information/presentation.

- Allows sponsor to reach a large number of individuals who are not attracted to other participatory forums, as this forum is specifically designed for them.

- Provides an opportunity to expand project mailing list.

- Allows presentations to be tailored with specific information suited to different groups.

- Can build community good will.

- Purpose and timeframe need to be stated clearly at the outset.

- If not appropriately targetted, project stakeholders may not be in target audience.

- The topic may be too technical.

- Does not provide a forum for making decisions.

- May raise expectations of the targeted audience.

- Stakeholders may be disillusioned because the process is used as a means to inform them and not take on board their ideas, interests and concerns.

- Concerns of stakeholders need to be recorded.

1. Prepare presentation materials using, for example, Powerpoint, overhead transparencies etcetera, thinking about the specific interests of the target audience. Also take printed material and have background information available.

2. Select groups and make offers for a briefing (telephone and/or send letters to confirm date and times). It is important to accommodate group/community needs as much as possible.

3. Clarify whether the groups are willing to promote the event, or whether you need to provide promotional material (flyers, posters, newsletter articles).

4. KISS keep it simple and short.

5. Bring visuals if possible, and talk about case studies or personal experiences to illustrate the points you want to make.

6. Outline opportunities for ongoing participation.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Small (1 to 10)

Long (more than 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Staffing

Experts

Facilitators

Recorders

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector

Projection screen

Printed information as handouts.

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Low

Medium

Low (traditional)

RAND Communications Consulting group and Publications Department (1996) Guidelines for preparing briefings (accessed in 2004).

Citizen Committees

Also known as public advisory committees and public liaison committees, these consist of a group of representatives from a particular community or set of interests appointed to provide comments and advice on an issue. Generally, relevant community groups and agencies are invited to nominate as members of the committee, although people with specific skills may also be asked. Members meet regularly to provide ongoing input and advice over the duration of the project.

- Allows the involvement and input of a range of people (for example, fishers and surfers as well as relevant government departments).

- Allows development of consensus (where achievable) or directions for action on complex issues that affect the broad community.

- Effectively disseminates detailed information and decisions to members of the organisations or community sectors represented on the committee.

- Provides opportunities for exploring alternative strategies and building on commonalities and alliances.

- Provides for a detailed analysis of project issues, timelines and deliverables and a focus on the outcomes.

- Participants gain an understanding of other perspectives leading toward an agreed, integrated outcome.

- Participant selection is a major consideration:

- The range of interests must be broad enough to represent all those affected, and those with relevant interests and skills.

- Community members must be willing to work together on a common challenge, and

- Organisers must be aware of potential conflicts.

- The original terms of reference need to be agreed upfront and recorded.

- Contact should be maintained with the committee to ensure that it does not take on a life of its own.

- Members` comments to the media may not coincide with the sponsor`s policy. A set of principles can be developed to avoid this happening.

- The general public may not embrace committee recommendations.

- Members may not achieve consensus (although consensus may not be the goal).

- The sponsoring agency or agencies must accept the need to give and take.

- May be time and labour intensive if the issue is significant.

Consider the demographic profile of the community to ensure most of those groups that will be affected by an issue or proposal are represented (see Case Study on Stakeholder Analysis).

Consider special interest groups.

Consider groups most affected by the issue.

Conduct stakeholder analysis prior to inviting groups to propose representatives (See Case Study on Stakeholder Analysis).

Be flexible to allow other representatives to join if they make themselves known during the participation process (however, it is more effective not to allow alternative representatives, as they can highjack the agenda and/or may need extra briefings that slow down the process).

Clearly state the role of the citizen committee and the objectives of the participation.

The organising group or agency should work closely with the committee during its formation.

The organising group or agency should work closely with the group during the participation process.

Use third party facilitators to manage conflict.

Be forthcoming with information.

Use a consistently credible process.

Set up reporting arrangements to ensure that members communicate with their constituents via their regular communications networks, e.g. newsletters, meetings, presentations, email, or websites.

Record decisions and keep a running summary. This is important if new people join the group

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Exchange Techniques

Venue (rental)

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitatorfacilitators

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector

Projection screen

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

High

Medium (some new elements)

Citizen Juries

Citizen juries involve the wider community in the decision-making process. Participants are engaged as citizens with no formal alignments or allegiances rather than experts. Citizens` juries use a representative sample of citizens (usually selected in a random or stratified manner), who are briefed in detail on the background and current thinking relating to a particular issue, and asked to discuss possible approaches, sometimes in a televised group. Citizen juries are intended to complement other forms of consultation rather than replace them. Citizens are asked to become jurors and make a judgement in the form of a report, as they would in legal juries. The issue they are asked to consider will be one that has an effect across the community and where a representative and democratic decision-making process is required

· creates informed, active, engaged citizenry

· promotes “common good” as a societal objective

· promotes self-transformation and development

· provides opportunities to introduce new perspectives and challenge existing ones

· more careful examination of the issue

· promotes consensus building

· promotes communication between government and governed

· brings legitimacy and democratic control to non-elected public bodies

- serves a geographically situated population

· no formal powers; lack of binding decision accountability to act upon decision /recommendation

· exclusive - only a few individuals participate

· resource intensive time commitment for participants and organizers

· potential problems lie in initial stages of preparation (i.e., jury selection, agenda setting, witness selection)

- these have to do with representation (who participates?)

responsiveness (what jury

is asked to do); and information transfer

(how jury is informed?)

1. Select a broadly representative group of approximately 8-12 people

2. Determine a question important to the issue being considered or develop a series of options for the jury to consider.

3. Brief jurors on the rules of the proceedings, and allow them between two and four days to come to a recommendation.

4. Provide expert witnesses to brief the jury who can be cross-examined and who can spend time discussing the issue with the jury.

5. Engage independent moderator(s) to assist the process of deliberation.

6. At the agreed time, arrange a presentation from the panel and/or collect the jury`s report, which should outline their recommendations.

7. Publish the report and recommendations (this would normally be done by the commissioning body).

8. If the recommendations of the citizen jury are not followed up, publish the reasons for not following up (this would normally be done by the commissioning body).

Medium (11 to 30)

2 to 4 days meetings on site

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Exchange Techniques

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator / facilitator

Facilitators

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Slide projector

Projection screen

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Medium

High

High (innovative)

Lenaghan, J. (1999) Involving the public in rationing decisions. The experience of citizens juries. Health Policy 49(1-2):45-61.

Jefferson Center (2002) The Citizen Jury Process (accessed in 2004). Jefferson Center for New Democratic Processes, Minneapolis, MN, USA.

Civic Journalism

Civic journalism sets out to provide people with detailed news and information about specific issuesto allow them to make the decisions they are called on to make in a democratic society. Newspapers, radio and television stations and the internet combine to provide forums for citizens to question their politicians, polling the electorate to elicit the major issues and then questioning legislators. Civic journalism is an effort to reconnect with the real concerns that viewers and readers have about the issues they care most about, not in a way that panders to them, but in a way that treats them as citizens with the responsibilities of self-government, rather than as consumers to whom goods and services are sold. Civic journalism takes the traditional five w`s of journalism--who, what, when, where, why--and expands them to ask: why is this story important to me and to the community in which I live?

-Can be used to raise widespread public awareness of community issues.

-Offers citizens the chance to determine what makes news in their community through polls or participation in community forums.

-Combines the power of the media to set political and social agendas with the power of individuals and groups to speak out about their issues of concern, and hence can influence the decision-making process.

-The media must decide whether to become involved to this extent.

-May pander to those who are most `media friendly` (glamorous, articulate people) and hence may not be representative of community views.

-Outcomes will be influenced by the media`s agenda.

If citizen generated:

1. Contact news agencies with case studies of civic journalism and their advantages for the news media and the community.

2. Organise focus groups, citizen juries, citizens` committees.

Advise local media of the opportunity to be involved.

3. Keep contact with key journalists to encourage them to treat this as a `running story` with regular updates for the duration of the campaign or until the issue is resolved.

If news agency generated:

1. Publicise public meetings, focus groups, etcetera to determine what issues are of most concern within the local area.

2. Coordinate coverage with other media (print, radio and television).

3. nvite politicians to discuss issues with citizen groups on camera.

4. Encourage citizens to develop options and publicise these options as an open forum for comment/voting.

5. Present solutions to those who have the power to make decisions and report back on their reactions/responses.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

News agencies or individual news reporters

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Medium

Medium (some new elements)

Charity, A. (1995) Doing Public Journalism. New York: Guilford Publications, Inc.

Community Fairs

A community event intended to provide project information and raise awareness about particular issues. The fair includes a multiplicity of activities and events of interest to cater for the broadest range of people, for example, sausage sizzles, rides and activities for children, young people`s activities and events of interest to adults.The events incorporated within community fairs, if focused on the main issues, will act as magnets to encourage public participation and will raise awareness on this basis.

- Focuses public attention on an issue.

- Can create interest from media groups and lead to increased coverage of the issue.

- Allows for different levels of information sharing.

- Builds social capital, that is, people who are more willing and able to participate in community decision-making and management.

- The public must be motivated to attend.

- Fairs can be expensive to do well.

- The project`s reputation can be damaged if the fair is not done well

1. Select a date and venue that will encourage the greatest number of participants to attend (generally weekends or public holidays). Liaise with key groups to avoid clashes.

2. Arrange for a number of activities and events of interest to various groups in the community (i.e. all ages, children, young people, adults, the elderly)

3. Provide low cost or free activities (rides, sausage sizzles etc.) to encourage attendance.

4. Advertise and publicise the event with emphasis on the issue to be considered.

5. Advertise starting and closing times.

6. Provide adequate staffing and consider the employment of volunteers.

7. Determine appropriate consultative activities for the fair. Organise the necessary duty of care and insurance issues.

8. Consider employment of an events manager.

9. Develop a plan of the site, and ensure all those participating know where they are to go. Consider some form of marking out sites (tape or stakes).

10. Prepare a traffic plan for trucks/cars etcetera, including a site for parking.

11. Allow adequate time for setting up.

12. On the day, ensure that coordinators circulate to assist participants to focus on the major issue and to facilitate participation.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Engagement of experts

Facilitators

Recorders

Artists or Photographer

Events organiser

Cleaners

First aid

Audio and visual recording and amplification

Overhead projectors

Printed public information materials

Response sheets

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector

Projection screen

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Furniture

Entertainment and events

Duty of care Insurance

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Medium

High

High (innovative)

International Association for Public Participation Toolbox (accessed in 2004)

Conference

conference is usually organised by a like-minded group or association to share information, present the latest innovations, and/or to make decisions about or on behalf of the organisation. Conferences can vary from `shoestring` budget gatherings to large-scale, week-long events that may justify hiring a professional conference organiser. Often, conferences provide an opportunity for organisation members who are geographically scattered to gather, learn, and socialise.The venue and presenters need to suit the types of people who will be attending. That is, a camping conference may suit backpackers, but an organisation whose members have young children, or are aged, will need a venue that suits these special needs.

- Can allow organisation-wide sharing and decision-making by bringing all members to one place for a day or a number of days.

- Provides networking opportunities for members of an organisation that are spread over a wide area.

- Provides a large enough audience to draw presenters of reknown who may not be willing to come for a smaller gathering.

- Allows new information to be shared with a large number of people simultaneously.

- Usually provides time for serious consideration of issues over two or three days.

- Can provide an opportunity for public statements that bear the authority of coming from the collective group.

- May take a long time from conception to welcoming delegates.

- Needs a dedicated committee for advance planning to ensure every detail is planned for.

- When deciding on timing and venue, consider other events or activities that may affect costs and availablity (e.g. school holidays).

- Need good quality presenters and a suitable venue to encourage large numbers to attend.

- Need to tailor the venue and costs for inclusiveness (e.g. disabled access; childcare; cost, ambience, levels of comfort, distance from public transport) to encourage people to attend.

- Starting time, and time of registration need to suit people travelling long distances.

1. Select a small working group to organise the event.

2. Determine what will be a suitable venue and time, taking into consideration the types of participants, their levels of ability/agility, the kinds of activities planned, cost and transport accessibility.

3. Book the venue and catering early, and check at regular intervals in relation to staff turnovers, changes to availability of facilities, changes to numbers, events, etcetera.

4. Give plenty of advance notice of the date and venue through mailouts, newsletters, together with contact details for one person for inquiries.

5. Select presenters who have credibility, knowledge, and good presentation skills.

6. Confirm all times, dates and locations in writing, and clarify what audiovisual equipment they may need, and any issues of payment.

7. Visit the venue when booking, and closer to the event, to check that all is as expected. Select knowledgeable and credible presenters, aiming for a variety of delivery styles and information.

8. Engage independent moderators to encourage equitable participation and to assist processes of decision-making and deliberation.

9. Preferably, have some agreed conference outcomes or actions or recommendations.

10. Consider gaining sponsorship to lighten the cost to participants.

Arrange all legal, financial and other responsibilities for holding a public gathering.

11. Organise a booking procedure, keep scrupulous records, and consider offering discounts for early registration.

12. Check audiovisual requirements, book and check equipment.

13. Plan carefully for the arrival of participants; if possible, trial your registration processes, catering and other facilities prior to the event.

14. Publish any reports, statements or recommendations.

15. Consider how participants will find their way to their destinations; signs, arrows, `help desks` can all help the conference run more smoothly.

16. Use the media to publicise your event and the conference`s decisions or opinions on issues. Send out media releases before the event to publicise the venue, times and speakers, and any notable events or people attending; if appropriate, organise a media conference for the end of the conference to announce the outcomes.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Venue rental

Catering

Presenters fees (in volunteer organisations, presenters may not ask for fees)

Staffing (can be a trained volunteer)

Engagement of moderator / facilitator

Other facilitators

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector

Projection screen

projectors

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Low

Medium

High

Low (traditional)

International Association for Public Participation Toolbox (accessed in 2004)

Consensus Conferences

· a group of citizens with varied backgrounds meets to discuss issues of a scientific and or technical nature

· consists of 2 stages:

1) meetings with experts, discussions and work toward consensus (involves small group of people)

2)conference during which main

observations and conclusions are

presented to the media and general public

· process of communicating information about the conference topic provides a strong educational component

· useful method for obtaining informed opinions from lay persons

Assists in the facilitation of public debate from a range of perspectives.

Empowers lay people to develop an informed understanding and make some contribution to the development of policy on a sensitive topic.

Demonstrates a plurality of views on issues.

Bridges the gap between experts and lay people.

Can develop new knowledge.

· recruitment method for stage 1 may

not ensure representative participation

· exclusive process for stage 1

· elaborate process requiring significant resources

· multiple conferences may be required to ensure that broad, representative opinions are sought

- it is a small group of volunteer citizens chosen to be representative

high costs for set up and recruitment of participants and staging the event.

The conference would run for a 2-4 day period and therefore resources will be costly.

The process of panelist selection can be difficult. Stakeholders analysis must be undertaken to predetermine who are the relevant groups.This will ensure that representation from the relevant groups is achieved,

Need to draw citizens for panels that are representative and from a wide range of backgrounds rather than members of the community who are usually present in participatory processes

Strict adherence to the rules of implementation is required for the conference to be successful.

The formalized nature of the tool can restrict impartiality.

Rapid production of reports and findings is required.

Choice of an effective facilitator is critical to the success of the conference.

- When the process can be opened to public input

- the issues is complex

Select an advisory/planning committee to have the overall responsibility of making sure that all rules of a democratic, fair and transparent process have been followed.

The committees should then:

Organise a public meeting and advertise the venue, time and topic to the public, experts in the field to be discussed, the media and appropriate decision-making bodies.

Select participants for the citizen panel, ensuring a representative sample of the geographic area and/or relevant community groups (about 14 people).

Hire a professional facilitator to work with the citizen panel during its preparation.

Book suitable venues for the citizen panel to meet over two weekends to work with a facilitator to formulate the questions to be taken up at the conference, and to participate in the selection of experts to answer them.

With the help of the citizen panel, select the expert panel in a way that ensures that essential opposing views and professional conflicts can emerge and be discussed at the conference. Good experts are not only knowledgeable but also open-minded and good communicators with an over-view of their field.

Hold a formal conference (2-4 days) at which:

Panelists hear experts` responses to questions.

After hearing these responses, panelists can ask follow up questions.

The audience is given opportunity to ask questions.

The panel deliberates and prepares a position statement to achieve consensus on the issue.

Panelists present outcomes.

Planning committee prepares a report of the outcomes and distributes to panelists, media and decision-making bodies.

Large (more than 30)

2 to 4 days on site plus 2 preparatory weekends

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Exchange Techniques

COSLA (1998). Focusing on Citizens: A Guide to Approaches and Methods (accessed in 2004).

Deliberative Opinion Polls

Deliberative Opinion Polls (DOPs) measure informed opinion on an issue. Compared to ordinary opinion polls, DOPs differ in that participants are informed via briefing notes and access to experts (these may include politicians), on a particular issue and have time to consider the issue is detail, whereas participants in ordinary opinion polls do not have the opportunity to learn about the issue being measured and may know little about the issue.

- The DOP uses a random sample of the population so that the results can be extrapolated to the community as a whole.

- The DOP advises decision makers and the media what the public would think if they had enough time to consider the issue properly.

- DOPs involve a large number of participants (between 250 and 600), therefore set-up costs are high.

- Informing the participants normally irequires access to experts in a number of fields of knowledge

- Speakers need to be organised

- With so many participants` opinions, managing data is a significant undertaking.

- Organising and running the event can be time consuming.

- Organisers need to allow time to select participants, undertake an initial opinion poll, allow two-four days for the deliberation process, and then allow time for another poll, and formulating the report.

1. Determine a random sample of the population, so that participants are representative of the wider groups in the community.

2. Conduct baseline survey of opinion.

3. Contact experts and politicians who may be required to inform the participants on specific aspects of the issue.

4. Brief participants and dispatch written information.

5. Give participants 2-4 days to compose questions and engage politicians and experts in plenary discussions.

6. Record views on a particular issue before the poll begins and again at the completion of the poll.

7. Changes in opinion are measured and incorporated into a report.

8. DOPs are often conducted in conjunction with television/media companies.

Medium (11 to 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Staff and telephones

Briefing papers

Expert knowledge

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Medium

High

Medium (some new elements)

Fishkin, J.S., Luskin, R.C., and Jowell, R. Deliberative polling and public consultation. Parliamentary Affairs, University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA, National Centre for Social Research, London, U.K., 53(4):659, 2000.

Delphi Study

`The Delphi group approach is a technique for gathering data that is similar to focus groups. Its value is that unlike focus groups, Delphi groups do not have to physically meet. The Delphi technique is a method of generating ideas and facilitating consensus among individuals who have special knowledge to share, but who are not always in contact with each other. Delphi study carefully selects individuals who have knowledge necessary to analyze a specific problem.`Most often, Delphi studies are conducted through the mail, by [email], telephone, and sometimes by personal interviews. However, this technique can also be used with faxes and e-mail. Initially, the participants do not interact with each other. Through the efforts of one [facilitator], who serves as a clearinghouse, the panelists see and react to each other`s ideas. Through a series of surveys, they share and generate new ideas based on an emerging consensus among the panel members.`

- Allows sharing of ideas and consensus decision-making by a large number of stakeholders who are geographically distanced.

- Can be used when the issue is complex.

- Works well to produce a consensus decision.

- Provides a transparent and democratic technique.

- Can deal with quite technical issues.

- Offers convenience to participants, as they can contribute from their own office or home.

- The process can be expensive to run.

- large amounts of data need to be assessed and distributed.

- Takes time for the organisers (can run for several months).

- Participant commitment may falter if the process takes too long or they have other commitments.

1. Identify a panel of experts or specialists by soliciting nominations from specialists or individuals appropriate to serve on the Delphi panel.

Cooperation and participation is improved significantly when prospective panelists are told how they were nominated by their peers.

The panelists` primary qualification should be their specialist knowledge. This knowledge can be gained through experience (for example, readers of a certain publication) or specialist knowledge (for example, safety engineers). Another key qualification is that panelists be willing to share their information (for example, non-competitors). The terms of reference of the study need to be described to the panelists at this time.

2. Invite an appropriate number of panelists to participate. Thirty to fifty individuals should be members of the final panel. This is large enough to see patterns in responses, but not so large as to overwhelm the facilitator or researcher, who must sift through all of the responses individually. The invitation should explain what is expected from each panel member in terms of time and effort to complete each wave of the Delphi study.

3. Prepare and distribute the initial survey instrument. The initial survey may contain open-ended probes or specific closed-ended questions, depending on the focus of the research.

4. Receive and analyse the first responses. Compile the responses by question, with only minor editing as necessary for clarity and consistency. If open-ended questions were used extensively, then it may be necessary to analyse and present the first set of responses within an appropriate theoretical framework, typology, or outline.

5. Prepare and distribute the second survey instrument. Most often panelists are asked, with this second wave enquiry, to clarify and rank order survey items suggested during the first wave. When the panelists receive the second survey instrument, it will be the first time they will have seen the responses of the other panel members. It is often appropriate at this time to ask for additional ideas, clarifications, and elaborations based on the initial survey responses

6. Receive and analyze the second lot of responses (second wave of data). If the initial questions were open-ended and the second wave asked for clarifications and elaborations, the analysis of the second wave of data can be very challenging because it requires numerous subjective decisions about rewording and revising the initial responses. Care should be exerted to include all of the new ideas and suggestions, for the main purpose of the Delphi study is to generate new ideas.

7. Prepare and distribute the third survey instrument. Most often, panelists are asked, with the third wave, to rank order and clarify the new set of revised survey items.

8. Receive and analyze the third wave of data. Often by this stage, the analysis is less subjective and judgmental, and more quantitative and objective.

9. Repeat the process with additional waves, if necessary. For example, sometimes certain priority items are selected for more in-depth treatment by the Delphi panelists, who may be asked to propose answers to questions or shortrange strategies for long-range goals, and so on.

10. Prepare and distribute a final report to panel members. One of the motivations for participating in a Delphi panel, particularly for specialists, is to learn firsthand, before others, what the results of the Delphi study are.

11. The final report is acted upon according to the initial terms of reference

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Small (1 to 10)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Exchange Techniques

Staffing

relevant communication media

relevant technical information needs to be made available to participants.

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Low

Medium (some new elements)

Department of Sustainability and Environment, Australia. Delphi Study.

Design Charrettes

`En charrette` was a term used by architecture students in Paris to mean `to draw at the last moment`. In recent years, the term has come to describe a design workshop in which designers work intensively on an issue and present their findings in a public forum. According to the Charrette Center website (www.charettecenter.com), `a charrette is an intensive, multi-disciplinary . . . design workshop designed to facilitate open discussion between major stakeholders of a development project. A team of design experts meets with community groups, developers and neighbours over a period from three-four days to two weeks long, gathering information on the issues that face the community. The charrette team then works together to find design solutions that will result in a clear, detailed, realistic vision for future development. The charrette process is an exercise of transparency, where information is shared between the design professionals and the stakeholders of a project area. In this way, trust is built between the parlties involved and the resulting vision can be based predominantly upon the issues that stakeholders feel are most crucial to them.`

- A design charrette is a good idea when people need to cut across boundaries and work on a large, collaborative project.

- Because participants are encouraged to offer design ideas and solutions to problems that are outside their areas of expertise, charrettes are particularly helpful in complex situations calling for new ways of looking at things.

- Can save money where many many drawings are needed in a short time. Rather than commissioning expensive drawings without input from the community, a charrette offers an inclusive, less expensive process.

- A highly specialised participatory tool, usually applied in planning and design projects.

- Attempts to bring together project stakeholders to facilitate fast and interactive decision making.

- Provides joint problem solving and creative thinking.

- Effective for creating partnerships and positive working relationships with the public.

- Can open up horizons for local people to imagine and visualise possibilities.

- Allows a problem to be analysed holistically, attempting to resolve community problems and encourage consensus buildin

enable the initiating agency to understand how a proposal appears to a community.

- Allows the desires, attitudes and preferences of special interest groups to be tabled so that conflicting issues can be resolved by consensus.

- Can energise community participation by introducing new perspectives through introducing multidisciplinary teams

- With expert facilitation, can provide a transparent and accessible process, giving voice to all participants, including those that may not be as self assured and confident as others

can stimulate community momentum through the intensity of the process

- Encourages people to become actively involved because the process promises immediate feedback.

- Properly facilitated and with extensive community contact, can function as a community education process.

- Provides an opportunity for the community to have input at a number of points in the process.

- Can save money by being an effective use of time and resources

- This specialised tool is only applicable to certain scenarios, for example, where a short-term resolution is needed, or where a high level of public awareness and input is needed and welcomed.

- The process is intensive, and usually lasts 5-14 days.

- As specialists are required, the process is costly.

- Ideally, the break-out groups should contain a cross-section of people in the various disciplines represented in the design team.

- A compressed time period means a number of stakeholders may miss out.

- Inadequate time provided for reflection and refinement.

- The process can be `railroaded` by vocal stakeholders if not run by a trained design charrette facilitator.

- The process limits the input of children.

- Participants may not be seen as representative of the larger public.

- The effects may not last if this is seen as a `one shot` technique, rather than part of a large planning and decision-making process.

1. Identify an architectural, urban design, or planning policy issue of community and/or environmental importance.

2. Select a suitably cross-disciplinary team or teams (e.g. architects/landscape architects/urban designers/engineers/biologists and/or students in these fields).

3. Elect an Expert Panel who can help assess the designs at the end of the process.

4. Hire a trained design charrette facilitator, who can help form teams and small groups, obtain quick agreement on desired outcomes, and keep everyone involved in the process.

5. Brief the teams on the charrette process, which aims at delivering feasible and creative solutions for real clients within a short period of time.

6. Plan for a workshop that provides sufficient time for the designers to work intensively on a problem and then present their findings (often five days).

7. Book a venue (indoor or outdoor) with room for the design team as a whole to work, as well as areas for smaller, break-out groups.

8. Encourage the team to begin each day with a whole-group discussion of issues, goals, findings, and approaches; these help to define subsequent goals and issues for break-out groups to discuss and analyze.

9. Encourage break-out groups to join the larger group regularly to present ideas and approaches; these can then be integrated or adapted into the overall design concept.

10. Record ideas using on-site graphic recording in a somewhat standard format that can easily be compiled in a report. Examples include `fill-in-the-blanks` flip charts that can be scanned into booklets or files for Internet distribution.

11. At the conclusion of the charrette, allow each team to present its proposed solution to a large audience of the public, planning professionals, and business and civic leaders. The goal is not necessarily to prepare a final design but to explore and understand all the design issues. The information shared and the understanding gained by the participants is the most important product.

12. Invite questions from an Expert Panel and questions from the audience.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental for final presentation

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of experts for design process and expert panel

Trained green charrette facilitator

Recorders

Gophers

Photographer

Audio and visual recording and amplification

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector

Projection screen

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Low

Medium

High (innovative)

Charrette Center Inc. (2003) The Charrette Center (accessed in 2004).

Displays and Exhibits

A community event intended to provide project information and raise awareness about particular issues. Displays can be interactive, and can be used as part of a forum, workshop, exhibition, conference or other event. Displays and exhibits can include feedback opportunities such as blank sheets with one-line questions, and can include drawings, models, posters, or other visual and audio representations relevant to community issues and interests. Interactive displays can include `post-it` ideas boards, maps for people to make their most and least favourite buildings or spaces, and flipcharts or blank posters for comments and questions.

- Focuses public attention on an issue.

- Can create interest from media groups and lead to increased coverage of the issue.

- Allows for different levels of information sharing.

- Provides a snapshot of opinions and community issues based on feedback.

- Public must be motivated to attend.

- Needs a facilitator to encourage involvement and written feedback.

- Can damage the project`s reputation if not done well.

1. Select a date and venue that will encourage the greatest number of participants to attend (generally weekends or public holidays/shopping centres or malls/public spaces).

2. Arrange for a number of displays/exhibits to give details of the event/issue.

3. Place the display/exhibit in a well-populated public space where those most affected by the issue/event are likely to pass by.

4. Advertise and publicise the event with emphasis on the issue to be considered.

5. Advertise times when display/exhibit will be open.

6. Provide adequate staffing and consider the employment of volunteers.

7. Consider duty of care and insurance issues.

8. Allow adequate time for setting up.

9. On the day, ensure that coordinators circulate to facilitate participation and answer questions.

10. Collate feedback and publish results.

Large (more than 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Staffing

Recorders

Gophers

Artists

Photographers

Events organiser

Cleaners

First aid

Overhead projectors

Printed public information materials

Response sheets

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector

Projection screen

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Furniture

Insurance

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Low

Medium

High

Low (traditional)

International Association for Public Participation Toolbox (accessed in 2004)

Electronic Democracy

Electronic democracy seeks to embrace existing and emergent media sources as a forum for allowing members of the public to express opinions and seek to influence decision-making withing their community, state, country, or globally . Media sources that may be used for the processes of democracy include television and radio, but the internet is the main way that electronic democracy can be seen in action. While electronic democracy is more an ideal than a reality, electronic democracy is generally discussed in theoretical terms, participation using the web through email, on-line voting and access to information on web sites are widely used participatory tools. People can use email or web sites to register their opinions on proposed developments, on environmental impact statements, and so on. Television and radio stations can set up websites that record listener voting on issues, or to register what are the major community issues for a particular demographic of the community. These findings can then be reported as a measure of community attitudes and issues, increasing the chance that these opinions will be taken into account in government or industry`s planning and decision-making processes.Community groups can also develop electronic democracy projects using commercial or not-for-profit on-line servers to develop the technical information infrastructure needed to set up web pages, email list administration, etcetera.

- Creates a virtual public space where people can interact, discuss issues and share ideas.

- Allows citizens to participate at their own convenience.

- Can reach a potentially large audience readily.

- Facilitates interactive communication.

- Costs little to set up.

- Disseminates large amounts of information effectively and without distortion.

- May exclude participation by those not on-line.

- Results can be manipulated therefore results of polls should be carefully considered.

- Needs a core group of dedicated volunteers (5 to 15 depending on the scope and scale of activities).

- People can become disillusioned if the project is `over-hyped`. Keep expectations realistic.

- Encouraging electronic conferencing among participants in an interactive forum ensures that the project moves beyond broadcast to build an on-line, participatory open space.

- Email lists with many active subscribers generate so much information that they drive people away.

1. Set up a core group of volunteers/participants interested in developing e-democracy, seeking people with a diverse mix of skills and experience.

2. Explore and use existing opportunities for contributing individual and group opinions on, or information about, specific issues including feedback on websites, televoting, on-line dialogues, and using the feedback options on on-line government services.

3. Provide search engines with sufficient data (from broad categories such as `off-shore fishing` to specific categories such as the name of the area e.g. `Bateman`s Bay`, to see what other information/opportunities are available).

4. Set up your own website providing information about your organisation, links to other sites that may provide background information.

5. Develop a clear and concise mission or purpose statement to form the basis of public interest and awareness through wide distribution.

6. Keep your site well organised and up to date; use standard HTML formatting to make the site as inclusive as possible.

7. Provide details of subscribe/unsubscribe procedures.

Include new email contact details in your public email lists so that you can report up-to-date information those who`ve registered an interest, and also invite them to add their signatures to submissions, alternate proposals, etcetera.

8. Set up your own on-line dialogue through your website. Counting the number of people who visit the site can provide useful data for authorities who need to know how many people are concerned, or what kinds of issues are of concern to the community.

9. Investigate whether government news groups offer newsgroup space for local electronic democracy projects. Newsgroups provide the core of information exchange and global topical discussions.

10. Don’t forget to let the traditional media know about your e-democracy project. An article in the news (radio, television or print) will let people know of your project and its address.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Commercial and not-for-profit online service providers

Public library on-line facilities

Private on-line facilities, including Internet

Volunteers with technical knowledge and understanding

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Medium

High

High (innovative)

Democracy 2000 (2002) The Civic Engagement Project (accessed in 2004)

Expert Panel

Expert panels are engaged when highly specialised input and opinion is required for a project. Generally, a variety of experts are engaged based on various fields of expertise to debate and discuss various courses of action and make recommendations. Expert panels are not as interactive as fishbowls (where expert panels are seen as the fish in the bowls). They are used often when the issue is highly contentious and decisions are likely to have possible legal ramifications or where the best possible results (based on expertise) are required.

- Useful when an issue is complex and contentious.

- Useful where conflict exists to provide opinions which may have more credibility, and hence may assist in resolving the conflict.

- Useful when a variety of opinions are present, to provide a credible alternative opinion, based on credible expertise.

- Useful when the possibility of legal ramifications are present, as the experts` report or opinions may carry weight in any future court case.

- Experts can be expensive.

- A long lead time may be needed to `book` appropriate experts.

- Format of the panel must encourage participation and dialogue between all panelists.

- Generally, this is used at the conclusion of participatory program where all available information has been considered.

- Public input may not be available.

- Used mostly where specialised knowledge is required rather than public opinion.

- A highly skilled moderator is required.

- Expertise in relevant and complementary areas will be needed to produce an `expert opinion` which will be credible with the public, and which can be drawn on in the case of legal action.

- Select panelists on the basis of expertise, ensuring issues/groups of relevance are represented.

- Allow time for contacting experts for the panel, and negotiating a mutually suitable time. For very busy people, this can mean planning some months in advance.

- Employ a skilled and unbiased moderator.

- Provide background briefing information to panelists.

- Determine ground rules for the panel.

- Allow public input if possible and appropriate (see also: Fishbowls).

- Determine course of action.

- Present the outcomes of the panel discussions.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Engagement of experts

Facilitators

Recorders

Audio and visual recording and amplification

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector

Projection screen

Furniture

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Medium

High

High (innovative)

International Association for Public Participation Toolbox (accessed in 2004)

Field Trips

Field trips are organised trips where participants visit physical sites. They are a venue for providing information and at times, opportunities for participant input.Public input is possible when other participative activities are combined with the field trip. A popular technique for environmental, planning and design related participation processes, field trips are especially useful as a complement to conference presentations, or when written work such as reports are inappropriate.

- Used when the issue being considered has a geographic focus

- Used when a large number of stakeholders are involved in the process

- Used where participants require information or education and these are best provided or explained on-site

- Used when a demonstration will be more effective than presentations

- Adds transparency and education to the process of participation

- Provides opportunity for rapport with key stakeholders

- Creates greater public knowledge of issues and processes

- Costly if a large number of experts are engaged to present on site.

- larger number of participants require large number of staff/facilitators

- Number of participants is limited by logistics.

- Potentially attractive to protesters.

1. Publicise the field trip

2. Select times that suit the largest number of participants (e.g. select from after hours for full-time workers, daytime for retirees or parents with small children).

3. Field trips can run from several hours to full days to allow the greatest number of participants to attend (depending on the time participants can spare; distance to be traveled; availability of expertise and/or case studies).

4. Advertise the agenda and times of key presentations in appropriate place, e.g. local media; posters at local stores and libraries. This will allow participants to attend for shorter periods if necessary, and will allow them to choose sessions of interest.

5. Ensure adequate staff on site to provide assistance (e.g. give directions; be available for first-aid; organise food and drink (catering, set-up and clean away), etcetera.

6. Create and display signs that publicise the location of field trip through attachment of maps/directions with a pre-posted agenda.

7. Ensure all publicity (signs, media releases, brochures) provide directions from major routes near the site.

8. Allow time for participants to approach experts for one-to- one discussions.

9. Provide printed public information materials during the field trip for interested participants.

10. Appoint staff to act as note takers during the discussions.

11. Provide feedback forms/survey/response sheets to facilitate public input.

12. Pay attention to duty of care/safety issues. If site is difficult to access or contains elements of risk, make necessary preparations to avoid accidents with an emphasis on participants with disabilities.

13. Organise catering if appropriate

14. Ensure toilets are available

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Small (1 to 10)

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Engagement of experts

Facilitators

Recorders

Photographer

Printed public information materials

Response sheets

Entertainment and events

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Low

Medium

Medium (some new elements)

Fishbowl

A technique used to increase participation and understanding of issues. The fishbowl represents an inner group of participants in a roundtable format involved in a decision-making process that is `witnessed` by a larger group who have the opportunity for input and questioning (see also Expert panels and Samoan circles). The fishbowl can be adapted with the use of role-playing techniques to highlight conflicts and alliances, the patterns that connect different points of view and the previously unrecognised linkages between different aspects of issues or problems. The fishbowl process can be modified to allow participants from the wider audience to join the roundtable

- highly applicable when consultation (and/or interaction) with the broader community is required.

- Can be used to build trust with the community by creating a sense of transparency in decision making.

- Can illuminate decisions through focused and creative dialogue

- Works best where presentations are brief.

- Requires organisers to be committed to a creative and `from the edge` approach to consulting.

- People must be able to operate from beyond their comfort zones.

- Requires intensive set-up and publicity.

- Skilled facilitators should be hired

1. Canvas people to be invited to the meeting in advance to determine the fishbowl team.

2. Book venue.

3. Hire a facilitator.

4. Advertise event.

5. Brief participants and the facilitator on the aims and objectives of the session.

6. Provide a technical briefing for participants if required.

7. Support participants with role descriptions.

8. Structure time for the interactions between the `actors` and the `audience`.

9. Can alternate between `experts` in the fishbowl and members of the public.

Each of the two groups can pick up on the issues and ideas expressed by the other.

10. Record issues raised by individuals and report back in the plenary sessions.

11. De-brief the participants and the facilitator.

12. Compile a report and distribute to participants and relevant authorities.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Engagement of experts

Facilitators

Recorders

Photographer

Printed public information materials

Response sheets

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Medium

High

High (innovative)

Focus Groups

Focus groups are used for exploratory studies, and the issues that emerge from the focus group may be developed into a questionnaire or other form of survey to verify the findings. Relatively inexpensive, focus groups can provide fairly dependable data within a short time frame. Focus groups are a technique used to find our what issues are of most concern for a community or group when little or no information is available. They allow people to answer questions, but also to bounce ideas off one another, and hence provide more detailed information as people share and elaborate on their issues.Where large-scale objective information is needed, a minimum of four focus groups and as many as 12 may be needed to collect all the information needed. Using independent researchers to run groups and analyse data will ensure objectivity for organisation who need to maintain transparent processes.

- highly applicable when a new proposal is mooted and little is known of community opinions.

- Can be used to develop a preliminary concept of the issues of concern, from which a wider community survey may be undertaken.

- Can be used for limited generalisations based on the information generated by the focus group.

- Particularly good for identifying the reasons behind people`s likes/dislikes.

- Produces ideas that would not emerge from surveys/questionnaires, because the focus group allows opportunity for a wider range of comments.

- Such small groups may not be representative of the community response to an issue.

- May be confronting for some to be open about their opinions depending on how well people know one another.

- People must be able to operate within their comfort zones.

- Requires careful selection to be a representative sample (similar age range or status etc.).

- Skilled facilitators should be hired.

1. Randomly select 6 to 10 people affected by or interested in the community issue to make up the focus group.

2. Book venue and arrange catering if meeting goes across a meal time.

3. Hire a facilitator.

4. Prepare preliminary questions.

5. Send reminders to participant with time, date, venue and questions.

6. Brief participants and the facilitator on the aims and objectives of the session.

7. Establish ground rules: keep focused; maintain momentum, get closure on questions.

8. Encourage shy participants if they feel anxious about revealing their opinions/feelings.

9. Engage a co-facilitator to record issues raised by individuals (may use audio, a/visual, and/or written notes).

10. De-brief the participants and the facilitator.

11. Compile a report of proceedings for the organisers, and offer a copy to the participants.

Medium (11 to 30)

Small (1 to 10)

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Venue rental

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Recorders

Depending on age group, may require child care

May use audiovisual or audio recording of discussion

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Low

Low (traditional)

Future Search Conferences

`A two-day meeting where participants attempt to create a shared community vision of the future. It attempts to bring together those with the power to make decisions with those affected by the decisions to try to agree on a plan of action. The future search conference can also be used to focus on the future of an organisation, a network of people or a community. Participants are encouraged to explore the past, present and future and make action plans based on common ground.`

- The search conference is useful in identifying issues at the early stages of a project or process.

- It assists in identifying key or priority issues.

- Can provide guidance on how the participation process should be run.

- Can provide advice on who to involve in the participation process and gain support for ongoing involvement.

- Can empower individuals to become better informed, and better able to express their opinions.

- Useful when participation of large groups is desirable and an open forum is sought.

- Can be logistically challenging given the number of potential participants.

- Requires

engagement of an experienced facilitator to be successful.

- Can be difficult to gain complete commitment (to attend or to agree on outcomes) from all participants.

- large time frame (two-three days) may affect the availability of volunteers / participants.

1. Canvas people to be invited to be part of the future search.

2. Book venue.

3. Hire a facilitator.

4. Advertise event.

5. Brief participants and the facilitator on the aims and objectives of the session.

6. Provide a background briefing for participants if required.

7. Conduct discussion.

8. Record issues raised by individuals and report back in the plenary sessions.

9. Compile a report of proceedings.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Engagement of experts

Facilitators

Recorders

Audio and visual recording and amplification

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector

Projection screen

Furniture

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Medium

High

High (innovative)

Information Contacts

Establishing information contacts who are identified as the official liaison person(s) for the public and the media, can help members of the community find information quickly and effectively. The nature of some participation processes is extensive, therefore it can be worth ensuring central information contacts who have the skills they need, know the process of participation inside out; and are well versed in project information, that they know the key stakeholders and stakeholder groups and are able to answer questions quickly with a high level of accuracy and authority.

- Can link stakeholders with technical experts

- Ensures people don`t get `the run around` when they call

- Controls information flow and promotes information consistency

- Conveys image of accessibility

- Useful when consultation process is intensive and widespread

- Gives the contact person(s) a good sense of stakeholder opinion.

- Useful in making suggestions for future consultation activities given understanding of stakeholder concerns

- Good for building up trust among all parties.

- Organising group must be committed to and prepared for prompt and accurate responses

- May filter public message from technical staff and decision makers.

- Contact people require strong interpersonal skills.

- Contact people should be briefed first about major project issues.

- Contact people must be well briefed in what information is appropriate for release.

- All external contacts should be logged.

1.Select and appoint person (s) with appropriate public relations skills and knowledge of public participation processes.

2.Publicise person by name with relevant contact points: phone, in person and via email

3.Brief person on role and provide them with appropriate background information

4. Maintain a log of contacts

5. Regularly meet with central information contact to develop a sense of stakeholder concerns.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

- Appropriately trained staff

- Electronic communications for checking details, logging contacts, etc.

- Comfortable workroom close to facilities wtih telephones, desks, chairs, etc.

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Low

Low (traditional)

US Department of transport (2002) Public Involvement Techniques for Transportation Decision-Making (accessed in 2004).

Information Hotline

An Information Hotline offers prerecorded information on a project via the telephone and/or access to project team staff members who can answer questions or provide additional information and assistance.

- Offers an inexpensive and simple device for publicity, information and public input.

- Provides a good service to the public by preventing people `do the run around` to access project information.

- Can serve as a link between the citizens and the municipality’s government.

It easy to provide updates on project activities.

- Can describe ways the community can become involved.

- Can offer a report-in point for volunteers who act as extra observers in reporting on events (e.g. pollution, litter, beached whales, etcetera).

- Offers a reasonably low-cost for set up and updates.

- Portrays an image of `accessibility` for an organisation, department or group.

- Can be an avenue for citizens to feel more involved in their community.

- It also can be a great way to catch illegal polluters or to stop accidental spills that might otherwise go unnoticed, for example, people may feel more comfortable to `dob in` a polluter when they are speaking to the people responsible for monitoring such activities via the relatively anonymous hotline, whereas they would not do this in person, or if they had to write a letter.

- Must be adequately advertised to be successful.

- If staffed by volunteers, can be time consuming.

- Works best if you can afford to set up an easy-to remember phone number.

- Designated contact must have sufficient knowledge of the project to be able to answer questions quickly and accurately.

- May limit a project officer from performing other tasks.

1. Determine the information to be recorded and timetable of updates to the service (if applicable).

2. Plan for advertising the number, which may include having stationery and flyers printed, or a stamp with the hotline number that can be stamped onto all outgoing printed correspondence or promotional material.

3. Set up a hotline number for callers by recording message and hooking up to the phone line. Record information that will answer the most commonly asked questions.

4. Set up a toll free number for non-local callers.

5. Advertise the number in the media, and ensure it is on all your outreach material.

6. Offer the option of being put through to a specific person for more details.

7. Appoint staff to answer questions

8. Brief and train the person nominated to ensure they can access all information, have contact details of who to ask for information on specific aspects of the project, and have a pleasant telephone manner, even with difficult callers.

9. Record calls/common complaints/concerns in telephone journal for your records and input to the participation process.

Large (more than 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

- Staff

- Comfortable workroom with desks, telephones, and computer access for recording contacts, tracking updated information, and contacting expert sources.

- Polite, brief, up-to-date recorded message giving details of the project, proposal or issue, and inviting further enquiries.

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Medium

Low (traditional)

International Association for Public Participation Toolbox (accessed in 2004)

Information Repository

Information repositories are formed when project information is stored in a centralised public place where members of the community can access the information. Popular places for information repositories include: public libraries, schools, city halls and Council offices. Typically, the repository should house all the project information appropriate for public access and act as a dispatch centre for project information.

- Where a large quantity of project information is being generated, the repository is useful in limiting the need for multiple copies (similar to libraries).

- Information repositories can double as distribution centres for project information

- Can illustrate the levels on interest in a project, and who is using the material, if log of users is kept through a `sign-in` system.

- Generally not well used by the public, if not in an easily accessible, well-publicised location.

- Staff at the repository must know the location of the materials and be able to answer basic project questions.

1.Select materials suitable for repository.

2. Select a suitable location that is centralised, accessible by public transport, and set up in a way that will allow the material to be easily used.

3. Publicise and existence of the repository through a range of publicity techniques.

4. Reiterate the existence of the repository at public consultation sessions.

5. Staffing: staff require basic library skills, interpersonal skills and the knowledge and ability to answer basic project questions (can use existing staff if housing repository in a public library or staffed space).

6. Maintain a log of visitors.

7. Consistently add information to the repository.

8. Maintain for the duration of the project.

9. Use as distribution centre for project information.

Large (more than 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

- Publicity

- Venue with good storage and display areas, and room to access material (correls or tables and chairs).

- Staff

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

High

Medium

Low (traditional)

International Association for Public Participation Toolbox (accessed in 2004)

Interactive Video Display Kiosks

Stand alone kiosks that present a large amount of information using a computer and touch screen/mouse for navigation through the information located within the kiosk. Interactive video displays and kiosks are similar to automatic teller machines, offering menus for interaction between a person and a computer. Information is provided through a presentation that invites viewers to ask questions or direct the flow of information. Viewers activate programs by using a touch-screen, keys, a mouse, or a trackball. Software used in interactive video displays and kiosks is highly specialized, storing information on CD-ROM or floppy disks that allow retrieval of specific information based on directions from the viewer. By contrast, hardware requirements are fairly minimal, requiring relatively simple computer equipment.

- Can elicit preferences from people who do not otherwise participate.

- Complement staff availability.

- Can provide printed messages.

- Provide information from an agency to the public.

- Collect information from the public for agency analysis.

- Offer agencies flexibility in controlling and directing where a message goes.

- If well-sited, can reach people who do not normally attend hearings or meetings.

- Deliver information to the user.

- Offer a variety of issues to explore, images to view, and topics to consider.

- Elicit specific responses, acting as a survey instrument.

- Enable the user to enter a special request to the sponsoring agency or join a mailing list.

- Are used in a variety of locations and may be either stationary or mobile.

- Allow a great deal more information to be made available and can be developed similarly to web pages and navigated in a similar way. Therefore, a lot more information can be made available through kiosks than stand alone displays

- Sophisticated information programs make interactive displays expensive.

- Takes time to set up (one year for planning, fundraising and setting up).

- After construction and installation, staff commitments are relatively limited.

- Any new technology involving machines may cause unease.

- Software purchase is a high up-front cost.

Maintenance costs are incurred.

- Potential vandalism is a factor in site selection.

- Liability issues may be associated with location of displays.

- Strategic siting of interactive programs is imperative. They should be located where large numbers of people can be reached

1. Conduct local meetings to determine whether interactive video would be a viable option for your community. The interactive video network might serve a number of community needs, such as teaching shortages in rural communities, and as well build the community`s capacity to participate in decision-making in relation to issues of community concern.

2. Contact communications providers and government agencies for funding and sponsorship for the project (e.g. telco`s may lay fibre optics as part of their community service obligations). Sponsorship is more likely if a number of agencies can present a case for using the systems (e.g. Natural Resources and Education Departments).

3. In setting up displays on a community issue, present materials in ways that are simple, graphically interesting, and easily understood.

4. Develop material in similar ways to web pages, so they can be navigated in a similar way.

5. Seek limited public input through the inclusion of electronic surveys, however manipulation is a possibility and results should be regarded with care.

6. Specialist software and industrial designers are required

Large (more than 30)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

- Sophisticated hardware and software

- Expert programmers to set up interactive display and keep updated/troubleshoot and repair.

- Technicians to install near ISDN or cable connections.

- Regular policing to prevent vandalism.

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

High

High (innovative)

US Federal Highway Administration Dept of Transportation (1997) Public Involvement Techniques for Transportation Decision-making. Interactive Video Displays and Kiosks. www.fhwa.dot.gov/reports/pittd/intervid.htm (accessed in 2004).

Key Stakeholders Interviews

Interviews with key stakeholders with expertise relevant to a particular community issue are lengthy, one to one interviews that may last an hour or two, and require specialist skill to use the time effectively, and to elicit relevant and specific information. The interviewer should be able to gain insights from a `casual` conversation so the person being interviewed does not get too narrow in addressing a single point (unless you want a lot of info about a specific issue). This interviewing technique is like the technique in focus groups, because you can keep asking questions until you get a satisfactory response. These are expensive and hard to do well, but they are very good sources of information and are especially useful when it is important to understand the views of certain people (because of their position or their expertise).

- Useful for targeting key stakeholders who have specific knowledge about an issue.

- Provides opportunity to get understanding of concerns and issues of key stakeholders.

- Can be used to determine how best to communicate with the public.

- Can be used to determine the best members of consultative committees.

- Can be expensive.

- Can be time consuming.

- Interviewers must engender trust or risk negative response to the format.

- Requires skilled interviewers

1. Select interviewees according to designated criteria (areas of expertise, representation of groups, complementary of skills for committees).

2. Arrange times and places for interviewing. Better quality information will be forthcoming if the interviewee is in a familiar setting, so it may be easier for the interviewer to go to them.

3. Ensure uninterrupted time for at least one hour.

4. Check all equipment and take spare tapes, batteries, pens, etcetera to avoid any interruptions during the interview.

5. Try to transcribe interview notes as soon as possible after the interview, while nuances, body language and asides are still in the interviewer`s memory.

6. Prepare a report, including the verbatim interviews, and offer copies to the interviewees.

Medium (11 to 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

- Trained interviewers.

- Recording methods (may be audio, hand-written or computer aided records, but should be unobtrusive, so the focus is on the content and conversation).

- May need a professional typist to transcribe tapes and hand-written notes, as this is time consuming.

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Medium

Medium (some new elements)

Darnall N. and Jason Jolley G. (2004) Involving the public: when are surveys and stakeholder interviews effective? Review of Policy Research, 21 (4), pp. 581-593.

Kitchen Table Discussion

small meetings within the neighbourhood, usually at someone`s home or a local coffee shop. These settings make the meeting informal and participants tend to respond to the more relaxed surrounds. Because they are informal, participants generally are more willing to discuss issues and dialogue is maximised. A kitchen table discussion group is a small collection of people who get together in someone`s home to talk, listen and share ideas on subjects of mutual interest. The host often begins by reminding everyone that there are no right or wrong ideas, and that everyone’s contribution is valuable. The host also encourages people to listen, to ask clarifying questions, and to avoid arguing or interrupting. Kitchen table discussion groups can be a prime vehicle for social change. Kitchen table discussions are now going `on line`, and are being held around virtual kitchen tables where anyone can join in to discuss an issue

- Maximises two-way dialogue.

- If issue is likely to be contentious, provides an ideal setting to scope for early conflicts.

- Maximises the likelihood of engagement in debate and allays likelihood of conflict because held in `neutral turf` setting

- Builds social networks within the community.

- Needs organisers/facilitators who are polite and relaxed.

- Requires creativity and resource investigation to reach a large number of people.

- Needs a diversity of interests to be invited.

- Best for small group discussions (eight to ten people).

1. If a kitchen table discussion arises informally, those who wish to follow up on this opportunity should seek advice on how best to encourage participation and how to handle the issues/information that arises. The informal beginnings can be discouraged if the person or people organising further discussions do not understand how to ensure all members of the discussion feel that their opinion will be taken seriously, valued and can be freely expressed.

2. Kitchen table discussions can be formally planned to reach targeted groups by advertising the venue and time.

3. Because these discussions reach groups that are not attracted to formalized participation programs, sensitivity must be used in organising and facilitating meetings so as to encourage continued participation.

4. Select a centralised, neutral space (not affiliated with any one interest group in the locality)

5. Use informal neighbourhood networks to organize the first round of events.

6. Set groundrules about respecting others opinions, and recording all issues for further discussion.

7. Needs sensitive handling to ensure no one dominates the discussion, and all opinions are valued.

8. Encourage group to record the outcomes of discussions and feed back into a broader participation program.

9. Encourage ongoing discussions.

10. Use these discussions as a means of gauging ongoing public response to a participation program.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Small (1 to 10)

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

- Possible venue rental

- Catering

- Staffing

- Hired facilitators, or volunteers with facilitation skills.

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Low

Low (traditional)

Vancouver Citizens Committee and Dobson, Charles: The Citizens Handbook (accessed in 2004).

Media Releases

Project information released to various media corporations. Media releases are seen as being official and reflecting the corporation/group/agencies` position or the outcome of a project. They can also be used to raise awareness and generate publicity.

- Can disseminate information quickly to a large number of people.

- Can be a predetermined method of notification.

- Can raise publicity and awareness.

- Can help an organisation or community group to make contact with the media.

- Can alert media organisations to an issue/event and may encourage their active participation through civic journalism.

- Difficult to retract, should any changes occur.

- Should be written in a journalistic style.

- May not be used if more exciting news events take priority.

- May be re-written and key facts/emphasis changed.

- Media organisations may become interested in an aspect of the project/issue that is not the focus of public concern.

- Media releases are competing with thousands of other incoming news items, and have a better chance of being used if they are sent directly to a journalist who has had previous friendly contact with the sender.

- The size of media releases limit the amount of real content that can be incorporated.

- Media releases have a better chance of being accepted is they have an element of controversy or risk, however an organisation or group may not wish to focus on possible negative outcomes or risks.

1. Determine what is the main news angle you wish to communicate.

2. Check deadlines for local publications/television/radio bulletins to ensure media release is received in time to be published before the event. (Some local newspapers have a Friday deadline for the following Wednesday publication date. Radio programs may need to check the spokesperson to see whether they will be suitable for on-air interview, etcetera.)

3. On average, send releases two weeks before events, except to magazines which may have a two-three month lead time for publication.

4. Follow news style:

- Keep the focus local (with local spokespeople) for local papers;

- Send only major capital city issues or state-wide issues to state papers; only national issues (and use national spokespeople) for national papers/magazines.

- Use short sentences; each sentence should be a separate paragraph.

- Use active sentences `the group have decided`, not `It has been decided`.

- Avoid jargon and difficult words (keep it simple).

- Write in about your group: `The group will hold a poster competition at the Centralville Town Hall on Wednesday, 23 January).`

- First paragraph of no more than 25 words telling briefly who, what, where, when and why about the event, issue or project.

- If using quotes in the body of the release, quote credible spokespeople and identify them with their positions in the organisation.

- Keep information clear and unambiguous.

- Keep releases short , no longer than one page. If the media want more information, they will contact you.

- If for a community notices column, check the required size and format of items (may be 30 words or less).

- Include in the media release the date the release was written, and a contact name and phone number for someone who is easily contacted during office hours.

5. Check whether the media prefers email (most do now), or whether you can distribute your release via AAP`s network (this will reach an Australia-wide audience).

6. If offering interviews, make it clear whether this is an exclusive for one media outlet (could be one print, one radio and one television, as these do not see one another as competing). This can encourage coverage of your issue, whereas a general media conference may not be well attended.

7. Track coverage to see how and when your information is published.

8. Be sure to write and thank the journalist to develop a relationship that may encourage them to work with your organisation in tracking progress on the issue/project, and hence keep the community informed.

Large (more than 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Volunteers/staff

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Low

Low (traditional)

Social Change Online (2000) Using the Media (accessed in 2004).

Mediation and Negotiation

`Negotiation is the process of searching for an agreement that satisfies various parties. An agreement may be reached either through a barter or through real negotiation. A barter allows only one party, the one in a position of power, to `win`. The other party is forced to accept something of lesser value. A real negotiation implies a `win-win` situation in which all parties are satisfied`.Mediation is the attempt to help parties in a disagreement to hear one another, to minimise the harm that can come from disagreement (e.g. hostility or `demonising` of the other parties) to maximise any area of agreement, and to find a way of preventing the areas if disagreement from interfering with the process of seeking a compromise or mutually agreed outcome.

- Generally used when normal participation methods fail.

- Attempts to provide a win-win outcome rather than settling on a single course of action.

- Can improve satisfaction of all parties.

- May allow areas of convergence (areas where there are some mutual goals or agreements).

- Generally requires a specialist moderator who is independent.

- Moderators can be costly, and their lack of knowledge of the content can be a drawback in the kinds of questions posed.

- Works best when the parties concerned are engaged; less well when a representative is asked to negotiate, as they may not feel they have the authority to be flexible in their solutions.

- Needs to get beyond set `positions` (I/we are only willing to do this or that) and look at the interests of all parties (what they are trying to achieve in broad general terms, e.g. do we want clean sand; clean water; access to the beach etc.) to create mutually satisfying outcomes.

- Needs all parties to agree to objective criteria by which to assess the `fairness` of solutions.

- Can be time consuming; could take months of meetings to find a mutually satisfactory outcome.

- Win-win is not guaranteed.

Negotiation and mediation are highly specialized activities and a simplistic methodology is not available. Specialists are generally required for negotiation and mediation.

The following excerpt has been provided as an introduction.

1. Analyse the interest of the parties: this is important to understand the perceptions, the style of negotiation, and the interests and principles of the counterparts, as well as one`s own.

2. Plan the negotiation, and determine:

- What are the expectations from the negotiation?

- What are the terms of the negotiation?

- What are the non-negotiable terms and what can be modified?

- What is the minimum that an agreement can be reached on?

- What is the negotiation strategy?

- What are the most important interests of the other parties?

- How does one interact with or manage people?

3. Select the appropriate negotiation technique from among the following:

- Spiralling agreements: begin by reaching a minimum agreement, even though it is not related to the objectives, and build, bit by bit, on this first agreement.

- Changing of position: formulate the proposals in a different way, without changing the final result.

- Gathering information: ask for information from the other party to clarify their position.

- Making the cake bigger: offer alternatives that may be agreeable to the other party, without changing the terms.

- Commitments: formalise agreements orally and in writing before ending the negotiation.

4. Negotiate: be sensitive and quick to adapt to changing situations, but do not lose sight of the objective. Avoid confrontational positions and try to understand the interests of the other party. Some aspects that could interfere with the negotiation are:

- personal positions and interests

- psychological and emotional aspects of the persons (place, placement of chairs, body language, gestures, etc.)

- difficulties in communication (differences in languages, different meanings of the same words, etc.)

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Engagement of expert

Recorders

Audio and visual recording and amplification

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Furniture

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

High

High (innovative)

International Association for Public Participation Toolbox (accessed in 2004)

Newspapers Inserts

An insert is a fact sheet that can be disseminated via a local newspaper. Inserts achieve high-level publicity for a project and normally are used at the commencement of a project. They create interest, describe the issue being considered and outline opportunities for public involvement in the participation process. Newspaper supplements can serve similar purposes, but cover the issue in more detail through features articles and/or advertisements. They can be a paid advertising arrangement, or can be put together by news staff in the public interest. Such supplements may include feedback opportunities, and may outline opportunities for public involvement.

- Achieves high level publicity.

- Provides information.

- When a large number of potential stakeholders exist.

- When a large number of people are affected by a development decision (e.g. road works/planning scheme preparation).

- Outlines opportunities for public involvement in a participation process

- Content should be simply stated, concise and unambiguous.

- Content should provide basic information (do not overload with too much information).

- Contact information should be provided.

- Cost may be a factor if the newspaper charges for the inserts, or insists on advertising.

- If undertaken as a community service, rather than a commercial transaction, distribution depends on the newspapers willingness to insert the flyers, leaflets, etc.

1. Decide the size, cost and number of inserts by determining the potential number of stakeholders, and how these match with the delivery areas of the newspaper.

2. Decide on your key messages, including methods for public participation.

3. Write your information in simple, concise and unambiguous language.

4. Outline major events and the duration of the participation process.

5. Include contact information, i.e. key project staff (by name), information hotline numbers, location of information repository ( if any), and include phone, email and website addresses.

6. If possible, use trained layout help to ensure the inserts attract interest and are easy to read.

7. Record contact made as a result of the insert, and add to project mailing list.

8. Use to report project outcomes as well as publicizing the process.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Staff to prepare, layout and deliver insert material.

Expertise in journalistic or advertising style or writing and layout.

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

High

Medium

Low (traditional)

International Association for Public Participation Toolbox (accessed in 2004)

Nominal Group

`Nominal group technique is a process in which a group of people become a group in name only. This technique aims to eliminate social and psychological dynamics of group behaviour which can inhibit individual creativity and participation in group decisions. Everyone is given a structured opportunity to participate. Nominal group technique is a way of organising a meeting to enhance its productivity. Its purpose is to balance and increase participation, to use different processes for different phases of creative problem solving and to reduce the errors in aggregating individual judgments into group decisions. It is especially useful for problem identification, problem solving and program planning.`

- highly effective workshop activity

- Ensures input from all participants

- Elicits a wide range of responses

- Useful for determining democratically derived outcomes

- Useful for fact-finding, idea generation, or solutions.

- Good facilitators are required.

- Rules need to be clear at outset.

- The wording of questions must be unambiguous and clear.

- Not for routine business, bargaining, predetermined outcome, or groups requiring consensus.

- Can be difficult to convince people to use Nominal Groups for the first time.

- Explanations help to overcome this resistance, but a successful experience helps much more.

- Trying out the process on an issue that can be covered completely in one

early experiences using Nominal Groups, people find it difficult to keep from discussing issues before all points are listed, clarified, and prioritised. So, the facilitator must prevent discussion from starting too soon.

1. Advertise group meeting of 3 to 4 hours.

2. Select participants to ensure a mix of interests/community groups/social levels/age/gender, etcetera.

3. Hire facilitator skilled in nominal group meeting process. Success of the process depends on thorough preparation by the facilitator.

4. Leaders should clarify the questions to be asked, considering what key information they need. Pretest the question before the meeting. Remember, global questions stimulate global answers. Emotional (likes/dislikes, etc.) information must be asked for directly.

5. For larger groups, organise into subgroups (seven to nine people) on the same or different topics, depending on the range of issues.

6. The facilitator should follow the full step-by-step process, which can include the silent generation and balloting of ideas used strategically in a wide variety of situations and taking relatively little time, eg, for quick agenda setting.

7. Choose from the following steps, and follow the process :

- Silent generation of ideas in writing (10 - 20 minutes)

- Recorded round-robin listing of ideas on chart (20 - 40 minutes).

- A very brief discussion and clarification of each idea on the chart (20 - 40 minutes).

- Preliminary vote on priorities: silent, independent (10 minutes).

- Meeting break

- Discussion of the preliminary vote (20-40 minutes).

- Final vote on priorities: silent independent (10 minutes).

- Listing and agreement on prioritised items.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental (meeting room with table to accommodate groups of 5-9 members)

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Engagement of experts

Facilitators

Recorders

Gophers

Artists

Photographer

Other

Audio and visual recording and amplification

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector

Projection screen

A flip chart or newsprint for each group.

Roll of masking tape.

Pack of 3x5 cards for each table.

Felt pens for each table.

Paper and pencil for each participants.

Response sheets

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Medium

High (innovative)

COSLA (1998). Focusing on Citizens: A Guide to Approaches and Methods (accessed in 2004).

Open House

Open houses provide information; provide a forum for understanding people`s concerns and discussing issues; and, provide opportunities for follow up or feedback. A relatively informal event designed to allow people to drop in and obtain information at their convenience. Usually, the open house includes display information and presentation material complimented by printed handout materials and the presence of the sponsor`s staff to meet with and answer people`s questions one-on-one. Brief presentations should also be made at regular times to inform guests.

- Useful when a large number of potential stakeholders exist and the issue is of concern to the wider community. Alternatively, it can be used to target a particular group.

- Frequently used as a lead-in to another participation activity and achieves early publicity for that activity

- Can also be used to provide feedback at the completion of a public participation exercise.

- Can fit people`s personal timetables.

- Where the issue is contentious, it provides a relaxed forum where conflict is less likely to occur.

- Fosters small group and one-on-one discussions.

- Allows other team members to be drawn on to answer difficult questions.

- Meets information and interaction needs of many members of the public who are not attracted to typical public meetings.

- Builds credibility.

- Attendance is difficult to predict at an open house. Therefore, it is important to advertise in a number of ways that target different sections of the community and select the location carefully.

- It is possible to move the location of the Open House on a regularly scheduled basis.

- Often, the concerns of a small number of people are well articulated at this forum

- lower attendance may mean that fewer people are informed. You need to use other methods to reach a wider audience.

- The low-key nature of an open house may also restrict people from asking questions and participating in discussions.

- Public input can be difficult to document, and may only be reported as hearsay.

- Protesters may use the opportunity to disrupt the event.

- Usually more staff intensive than a meeting.

- May not provide the opportunity to be heard that some of the public may expect.

1. The five steps to a successful open house are as follows:

- understand your objective and develop a work plan

- schedule a place and time

advertise

- develop the display and supporting materials

set up.

2. Consider the target audience and your objectives to decide whether an open house is the most appropriate public participation tool for the issue being discussed.

3. Some of the considerations in developing the workplan include: the cost of the display, how to convey information on the display, how much time it will take to design and produce the display and how the display materials can be transported from place to place.

4. The choice of a central and easily accessible location is critical in the success of the open house. Organisers should maintain a low-key presence and make everyone feel welcome. They should also consider the needs of the particular audience (if there is a target group for the open house). The opening times should be flexible and change in response to the preference of the public. Comment sheets should be provided and staff should be available to answer questions and record comments.

5. The publicity of the open house is also important to its success so advertising is necessary. The location, opening times and purpose of the open house should be publicised in the media. The open house should be left open as long as possible to allow as many of the public to use the facility as possible.

Large (more than 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

High

Medium

Low

Medium (some new elements)

International Association for Public Participation Toolbox (accessed in 2004)

Open Space Technology

A radical participatory approach developed by US Management Consultant Harrison Owen in the 1980s. Stated simply, open space technology allows participants to offer topics for discussion and others to participate according to their interest. The theory behind open space technology is that people will take ownership of issues they wish to address. The open space technology operates on the following four principles:

- Whoever comes are the right people·

- Whatever happens is the only thing that could have

- Whenever it starts is the right time

- When it’s over, it’s over.

- Appropriate for use where there is a need for new ideas and the prevailing climate is characterised by uncertainty, ambiguity and a low level of trust.

- Because there are a limited set of rules, the process is driven by the participants.

- Absence of `control` of the process means participants must be prepared to go where the process takes them.

- Includes immediate summary and discussion.

- Provides a structure by giving participants opportunities and responsibilities to create a valuable product or an experience.

- Facilities should be flexible to accommodate variable group sizes.

- A powerful theme or vision statement is needed to generate topics.

- A large number of participants are involved in the process (up to 500).

- The most important issues can sometimes be lost in the discussion.

- It can sometimes be difficult to get accurate records of results.

1. Determine whether the open space technology process is the most appropriate technique for your situation, considering the people who are likely to take part and their preferences and attitudes, and the venues available to you.

2. Select venue, facilitators and prepare information (open space technology can be successfully used in conjunction with other techniques such as conferences and workshops).

3. Publicise the event.

4. Describe process and rules to the participants, as outlined below:

a. Principles· Whoever comes are the right people. Whatever happens is the only thing that could have. Whenever it starts is the right time. When it`s over, it`s over.

b. Law of two feet·The law of two feet: people are honour bound to walk away from proceedings and sessions which they believe are irrelevant.

c. Follow due process

5. One by one, each person who wishes to, steps into the centre of the circle and announces their name and topics they feel passionate enough about to be willing to lead a break out session on that topic.

6. Each passionate person writes the topic on a piece of paper along with time and venue for a discussion.

7. Following announcements of topics by passionate people, the market place becomes open. The marketplace is a wall where all the topics, times and venues are posted to allow participants to decide which session to sign up to.

8. Those who announced the topics facilitate the individual discussions and appoint people to record minutes on provided computers.

9. Reconvene into the larger group and report back, or combine reports into one document and ensure widespread dissemination to all those who took part, and all those likely to make a decision.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Venue with room for a large gathering space, plus up to 10 smaller breakout spaces, which offers shelter in case of rain, heat, etc.

Facilitator trained in Open Space Technology techniques.

Publicity (which, for a large gathering may include a website on which topics or themes can be predetermined.)

Website or other means to disseminate outcomes or issues papers.

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Medium

High (innovative)

Owen, H.A. (1997) Open Space Technology. A Users' Guide. San Francisco, Berrett-Koehler.

Worldwide Open Space Marketplace. A collection of links, resources, stories, and contacts (accessed in 2004).

Participant Observation

Participant observation is a method of collecting information about the operation of, and attitudes existing in, a community through a researcher living in the area for an extended period. The participant observer becomes known within the community, and gets to know the community in a more intimate and detailed way than someone who simply comes to do a survey and then departs. The participant observer consequently is given much more detailed information, and may identify specific issues and assist groups to address these by developing mutually agreed principles and practices

- Can develop greater understanding of sensitive situations.

- Can be used before developing a consultation program in cases where the nature of community issues is not known to agencies.

- Can be used for scoping information and determining key players when the issue is contentious or controversial

- Can assist in the development of a more thoughtful consultation program because participant observation is usually conducted incognito.

- Can allow the development of consultation processes that suit the subject community.

- This method is limited, and needs to be used in conjunction with other methods for collecting information, for example, surveys, public meetings, and/or displays and exhibits.

- Depends on the ability of the researcher/consultant to correctly observe and draw appropriate conclusions.

- Can create concern in the community.

- Not recommended for use in isolation but in conjunction with other tools and techniques, to offset any bias or inaccuracy in the observer`s conclusions.

- Applicable to a wide variety of issues.

- Particularly useful as a technique where the issue is contentious or controversial.

- Takes a long time.

1. Researcher lives in or regularly visits the site/suburb/organisation.

2. Observations are made by the researcher regarding opinions or reactions to particular issues.

3. Researchers should state their intentions openly, and integrate themselves into the community.

4. The conclusions drawn by the researcher depend largely on the researcher`s abilities, and should be seen within this context.

5. Generally, participant observation should be combined with actual participation techniques to be of any value.

Large (more than 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Staff

Publicity

Accommodation

Observation locations (may include a location for a storefront drop-in centre)

Record-keeping facilities (computers, notebooks)

Venues and resources for public meetings (see workshops)

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

High

Low (traditional)

International Institute for Sustainable Development (1999) Participant observation and individual interviews (accessed in 2004).

Photovoice

Photovoice is a process of collecting information and expressing issues and concerns through photos. Photovoice has three main goals:

to enable people to record and reflect their community`s strengths and concerns;

to promote critical dialogue and knowledge about personal and community issues through large and small group discussions of photographs; and

to reach policy makers.

Photovoice is highly flexible and can be adapted to specific participatory goals (such as needs assessment, asset mapping, and evaluation), different groups and communities, and distinct policy and community issues.

- Provides pictorial evidence of community issues (a picture being worth a thousand words.

- Provides an alternative means of expression which may help include those who are more visual than literate.

- Allows detailed information to be collected from individual participants.

- Provides a snapshot of an area or issue from which to develop indicators and to gauge changes/responses.

- Can easily be used in the media (print/television/interactive A/V technologies.

- Can be costly, e.g. cost of disposable cameras, developing film.

- Requires staffing and the coordination of participants.

- If photos are pasted onto a larger poster type presentation, can be difficult to store and protect (may need photocopies taken for storage/distribution).

The stages of photovoice include:

1. conceptualising the problem

2. defining broader goals and objectives

3. recruiting policy makers as the audience for photovoice findings

4. training the trainers

5. conducting photovoice training (for participants)

6. devising the initial theme/s for taking pictures

7. taking pictures

8. facilitating group discussion

9. critical reflection and dialogue

10. selecting photographs for discussion

11. contextualising and storytelling

12. codifying issues, themes, and theories

13. documenting the stories

14. conducting the formative evaluation

15. reaching policy makers, donors, media, researchers, and others

16. conducting participatory evaluation of policy and program implementation

Large (more than 30)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Exchange Techniques

Disposable cameras

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Engagement of expert

Facilitators

Recorders

Gophers

and others

Audio and visual recording and amplification

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector

Projection screen

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Furniture

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Medium

Low

High (innovative)

Wang, Caroline. (1998) Photovoice - Methods (accessed in 2004).

Planning4real

Planning for Real offers local people a `voice` to bring about an improvement to their own neighbourhood or community. Local people begin by constructing a three-dimensional model of their neighbourhood or catchment area. From this, they construct their vision of their ideal neighbourhood or catchment by placing suggestions cards on a three-dimensional model, then sorting and prioritising the suggestions. The model of the neighbourhood or catchment is made so that it can be moved from venue to venue, allowing more people to participate. Used since the late 1970s in Britain, this planning tool is now used throughout the world. Participants are largely intended to be from the target community, with government officials, local councillors, and professionals present to answer questions, when requested.

- Provides a three-dimensional model that may help people better envisage the changes suggested for the neighbourhood.

- Offers a hands-on` approach that allows participants to visualize the preferred future for an area.

- Particularly effective in mobilising community support and interest.

- Specific projects are identified and implementation is set in motion.

- Has advantages for those who are more visual/tactile in their approach.

- Can help bridge language barriers in mixed language areas.

- Requires commitment from decision makers to follow through on suggestions.

- Needs commitment from participants to stay for two and a half hours to participate in the whole process.

- Can be expensive to develop a three-dimensional model.

- If building a model with volunteers and found materials, can take three months to collect materials and create the model in easily movable sections.

- Can take two-three months for follow up and feedback.

1. Hire a knowledgeable moderator to start the process, although a community member with some background in community development could readily pick up the key concepts through the `kit` which is sold by the Neighbourhood Initiatives Foundation.

2. Assemble the three-dimensional model of the neighbourhood from lightweight material and in easily-transportable sections (ask volunteers, a local club, students, or others as a way to involve key people). The model is usually best at a scale of 1:200 or 1:300, which allows people to identify their own home.

3. Use the model to publicise public meetings, by taking it around shopping centres and community meeting points for about two weeks to generate interest and begin the process of identifying problems and opportunities.

4. Begin training sessions with a few local residents to familiarise them with the process.

5. Hold public meetings where cutouts are placed on the model as a way to identify issues of concern to the community.

6. Form small, ad hoc `working parties` around these issues, for example, Traffic, Shopping Facilities, Play Areas, Work Opportunities, Coastal Zone Management and Planing etc. These working parties then meet to work out details and to negotiate between conflicting interests and priorities, using a `Now, Soon, Later` chart as guide.

7. Plan a series of activities to develop a momentum that continues into specific practical proposals. Sufficient time is needed for an effective exercise. Three months is suggested for the initial stage of mobilization, setting up a steering group, building the model and publicizing the sessions.

8. Circulate steps taken in local newsletter and/or media.

Large (more than 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Workshop location must be large enough to accommodate the model. Common community spaces are preferred.

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Engagement of experts and facilitators

Recorders

Gophers

Artists

Photographer

Modeling equipment: Sheets of polystyrene are suggested as the model base, glued to cardboard or other hardboard for stability.

Props for working in groups (markers, pins, tape, glue and access to photocopying facilities for duplication).

Tables/chairs.

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

High

High (innovative)

Neighbourhood Initiatives Foundation (1995) A Practical Handbook for Planning for Real Consultation Exercise. NIF. Telford. UK.

Poster Competition

Poster competitions raise awareness of issues and participation programs, for example, a poster competition about caring for our catchment or water quality or water conservation will elicit ideas that generate discussion and can lead to planning to incorporate these ideas. Posters provide visual, colourful, simple ways to communicate community issues and events, and are suitable for display in community spaces. Poster competitions that display children`s work can reflect the attitudes of much of the community as children between certain ages tend to reflect their parents` ideas. Poster competitions can generate publicity and provide information

- Provides basic information about a process, project or document in a fast, concise and clear way.

- Can allow easy updates on an issue/process/project.

- Can create publicity for an issue/event.

- If the poster competition is displayed in public spaces, they can provide easy ways for people to get information.

- Provides easier ways to absorb information for those more comfortable with pictures than words (and those from other cultures who speak languages other than the dominant language).

- Can be humorous, interesting, colourful and may include cartoons and diagrams.

- Provides an informal gauge of community attitudes to issues.

- Creates interesting graphic material for the project.

- Can lead to greater participation.

- Generates ideas.

- Excellent for children`s participation.

- Can encourage people to seek more information.

- May need descriptions to explain the concept portrayed on the posters.

- Where posters are developed by school children or members of the public, may not cover all aspects of an issue/process/project (may need some knowledgeable staff to accompany a display of the works to answer questions).

- May need continual staffing to watch display to avoid vandalism and expalin the display (see above).

- Competitions can cause ill will if the judging is considered to be unfair.

1. Determine issues/aspect for poster competition and the community groups to be asked to participate.

2. Encourage participation from all ages and community groups.

3. Set timeframe for poster competition (one month), size of posters, media, due date and where they are to be delivered. Specify how many words for any captions/explanations.

4. Advertise competition, with details of where, when and how to deliver the posters, and how they will be judged, and where the finalists will be displayed.

5. Select an appropriate local personality/politician to announce the winners.

6. Sort posters and determine which are suitable for display. Advise contributors whose posters have been selected for display and where they can be seen.

7. Invite the media to the judging, and announce winners.

8. Provide options for visitors to the poster display to make comments/provide feedback.

9. Prepare a report on the issues raised in the posters and the feedback, and forward this to relevant authorities.

Large (more than 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Staffing

Publicity

Judges/prizes

Venue for display

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Low

Medium (some new elements)

Wates, N. (1999) Interactive display in The Community Planning Handbook. London, Earthscan.

Printed Information

Printed material is still one of the easiest ways to publicise and provide information on a project/issue, or publicise a participation process such as an event or meeting. Popular forms include: fact sheets, flyers, newsletters, brochures, issues papers, reports, surveys etc. These can be single purpose or be produced as a series for distribution (e.g. newsletters).Printed material can be distributed hand to hand, made available for the public to pick up, or mailed out either directly to a select mailing list, or included as `bill stuffers` with regular mail outs such as utility bills, rates notice or other regularly posted bills.

- Printed public information materials can combine the needs of publicity with information and allow for minor public input

- They can reach a large amount of people through mailing or via the availability of the information to the public

- If comment sheets or questionnaires are included the material can allow for limited public input to a project

- Can facilitate the documentation of the public participation process

- Can be a low-cost means of publicity

- Can be economically distributed by doubling up with existing mail out lists.

- The problem with most printed materials is the limited space available to communicate complicated concepts

- Needs time to decide on text, visuals, proofread, print and fold.

- There is no guarantee that the materials will be read.

- If mailed, the guarantee of being read is only as good as the mailing list itself; mailing lists need regular updating to avoid wasted time, energy and paper.

- Appearance of the material should be visually interesting but should avoid a `sales` look

- Can be lost if included with many other flyers and bill stuffers (consider using coloured paper and bold headlines if mailing as a bill stuffer, to ensure this is not just binned without reading).

- Without visual elements, this can exclude those who are not print literate.

1. Available budget, and the use of other publicity methods and tools for distributing project information, will determine just what type of printed material will best suit your need.

2. Plan your messages well.

Provide regular updates, but do not bombard people with information.

3. Develop the material with the following considerations in mind: make it eye catching (colour, photos, cartoons).make it simple and easy to understand

Provide points of contact, such as the name of a central information contact or details of the participation program

Avoid a `sales` look

Do not overload with information

4. Limited public input can be sought through printed public information materials by the inclusion of surveys and questionnaires or comment/response sheets.

5. Enclosing a stamped, addressed envelope(or email address/website) with mail outs will improve the return of comments for posted materials

6. The material should be easily available to the public and be accessible from a number of locations.

7. It is critical that the information outlines the public`s role in the participation process or opportunities for participation.

8. Keep mailing lists up to date and check for duplication to save money, time and paper.

9. If distributing as a bill stuffer: speak to agency/department which distributes bills and find out when they need the material in order to go out in the appropriate mail out, and in what format. check what else is being distributed with bills, and decide whether your flyer will have a good chance of being read. deliver/arrange for printer to deliver to agency/department who will stuff and distribute

Large (more than 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Staff or volunteers with expertise in writing, editing and layout.

paper

printing

postage

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

High

Medium

Low (traditional)

International Association for Public Participation Toolbox (accessed in 2004)

Prioritization Matrix

A Prioritisation Matrix is a technique used to achieve consensus within a specific group of participants about an issue. The Matrix helps rank problems or issues (usually generated through brainstorming or other techniques) by a particular criteria that is important to the project, as defined by the participants. This allows participants to clearly see which issues are the most important to work on solving first. Prioritisation matrices are used to determine what participants consider to be the most pressing issues.A prioritisation matrix can use whatever resources are available to create a table of issues and boxes for participants to cast their `votes`. Tools can include whiteboards, computer databases, or twigs and stones in a field trip setting. The important thing is to list all the issues, to determine the frequency with which problems arise in relation to an issue, the importance the people give to this, and to count the votes to determine what is seen by the majority of people as a priority.

- Can assist in defining the most important issues in participation projects with many issues.

- Provides a democratic and transparent device for determining priorities.

- Can provide a focus for action.

- Setting up criteria can be problematic, if the brainstorming process raises a large number of issues.

- Some issues may not be considered because they are not raised by participants.

1. Conduct a brainstorming session on issues that participants wish to explore in relation to a proposal, plan or community service.

Go to the Brainstorming tool to learn how to conduct group brainstorming.

2. Fill out the Prioritisation Matrix chart with the group: Issue/Frequency/Importance/Feasibility/Total Points

3. In the first column, write down the issues that were mentioned in the brainstorming session.

4. In the second to fourth columns, define your criteria. Examples of some typical criteria are:

Frequency: How frequently does/will this issue affect the participants? Does it occur often or only on rare occasions?

Importance: From the point of view of the users, what are the most important issue? Add the issues that the organising agency or group wants to address?

Feasibility: How realistic is it that you can find a way to address this issue? Will it be easy or difficult? You can choose other criteria if they better fit the situation you are discussing. For example cost, environmental impact (high to low), number of affected persons can act as criteria; for a more quantitative comparison, you could use cost, amount of time, or other numerical indicators. It is also possible to use number values for each criteria and provide a rank out of 10 for each criteria. Collating total numbers for all criteria against issue can indicate the issues of highest priority

5. Rank/Vote: Each participant now votes once in each of the boxes.Total all the votes together. The totals help you see clearly how to identify the priorities

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Engagement of experts

Recorders

Gophers

Artists/photographer

Audiovisual recording equipment and amplification

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector/screen

Printed public information sheets

Response sheets

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Furniture

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Low

High (innovative)

Public Conversation

Public conversation and/or individual discussion are informal consultations that allow you to talk to participants in a direct and personal manner. Informal consultation techniques such as these support more formalised consultation techniques by identifying key issues, attitudes, skills and knowledge. The personal level of discussion of these tools is generally not possible under more formalized consultation approaches and a greater appreciation of project issues can emerge as a consequence. Such informal discussions allow a free-ranging discussion around the issues which may reveal issues or attitudes that would not come to light through more structured surveys which may begin with with a pre-conceived notion of who and what is relevant to the issue.

- Can help identify individuals and groups who should be consulted as well as how they should be notified or invited.

- Can help gather information and understand people`s viewpoints prior to formalized programs.

- Maintains and establishes good community relations.

- Directly involves individuals.

- Offers insight into issues prior to the development of a consultation program, or may suggest alternative approaches.

- Can be costly.

- Can be time consuming.

- Time and cost constraints can limit the number of participants.

- Discussions may be difficult to incorporate into participation findings.

- Opinions may not be representative.

1. Approach people that are potential stakeholders in the following ways:

On the telephone

On the street

At places of work

In public places.

2. Identify yourself and ask if the person is interested in discussing the issue.

3. Arrange venue, times.

4. Allow the participant flexibility in steering the discussion to areas of their interest

5. Take notes (or tape/type notes).

6. Use findings to modify a participation program and/or target specific stakeholder groups

1. Approach people that are potential stakeholders in the following ways:

On the telephone

On the street

At places of work

In public places.

2. Identify yourself and ask if the person is interested in discussing the issue.

3. Arrange venue, times.

4. Allow the participant flexibility in steering the discussion to areas of their interest

5. Take notes (or tape/type notes).

6. Use findings to modify a participation program and/or target specific stakeholder groups

1. Identify the issue or issues to be discussed.

2. Advertise public meeting time and issue.

3. Hire a facilitator who can bring a non-adversarial approach to the discussion.

4. Record discussion points.

5. Write up and distribute a report of the discussions, acknowledging the differing viewpoints and highlighting areas of overlap and difference.

6. If such a discussion is part of a decision-making process, describe the final recommendations and reasons that come from the public discussion.

1. Identify the issue or issues to be discussed.

2. Advertise public meeting time and issue.

3. Hire a facilitator who can bring a non-adversarial approach to the discussion.

4. Record discussion points.

5. Write up and distribute a report of the discussions, acknowledging the differing viewpoints and highlighting areas of overlap and difference.

6. If such a discussion is part of a decision-making process, describe the final recommendations and reasons that come from the public discussion.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Exchange Techniques

Facilitator

Staff

Volunteers

Unobtrusive recording mechanisms (audiotape; notebook; computers)

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

High

Medium

Medium (some new elements)

Public Education Network (2002) How to Set Up a Public Conversation (in five steps). Washington, PEN.

Public Involvement Volunteers

Public involvement volunteers are people from the community who are temporarily enlisted to assist in developing and implementing a public involvement program. These volunteers can take on various roles according to the nature of the participation program, for example, they might show people around a facility or site; hand out or letterbox drop information brochures; engage passers-by in a survey; answer telephone queries or undertake a telephone survey.Public involvement volunteers would normally have an interest in the issue or the community, and be willing to assist . Such volunteers will extend the staffing for an event or outreach without a great deal of additional cost. For example, if dunes are being stripped of vegetation and eroded, a public awareness campaign may be needed to enlist community involvement in planning and acting to revegetate and protect the foreshores. The volunteers need to be clear about the purpose of the event or process, and to be well briefed at the outset and kept up to date so that they can undertake their work effectively.

Public involvement volunteers can help a group or agency who is undertaking a public information campaign or a public consultation process. For example, public involvement volunteers may be enlisted to do the following:

- Handle general administration: fold, staple, telephone, file.

- Staff open days or open house.

- Distribute material door-to-door or at meetings.

- Act as a volunteer speakers` bureau.

- Stretch a limited budget.

Having public involvement volunteers can also:

- Expand possibilities for community participation. More volunteers offer more choices for meeting community groups at a place of their choosing, which increases the number of participants in a planning process.

- Help the organisation understand community viewpoints.

- Help the community understand the issue and/or process.

- Add vigor to the public involvement process.

- Help assemble a community perspective on a project or program.

- Add a level of person-to-person communication.

- Bridge communication gaps.

- Offer an advantage in eliciting concerns and issues.

- Help identify people for leadership positions

- The organising agency or group has less control over unpaid volunteers.

- These techniques do not substitute for professional staff involvement.

- Volunteer loses credibility and standing in the community if things go awry.

- Must allow some training time and costs

1. Plan to recruit and train volunteers before you need them. These may be members of partnership agencies, consultants, researchers, agency board members, local government members, or community residents.

2. Plan what you can achieve with the number of volunteers available. Match your volunteer`s capacities to the task they will be given. For example, those who are confident public speakers could be sent to speak to public meetings or local government representatives. Those with secretarial skills could be allocated to typing information sheets and/or creating databases to record feedback and information received. Those with media skills could work on developing promotional materials. In an open house situation, volunteers can be shown the facility or site and key issues explained so that they can effectively usher community groups around the site.

3. Organise training for your volunteers, which should be simple and should continue throughout the campaign or event, as new information or issues are discovered. Training may include: public speaking practice and feedback; meeting facilitation; media liaison; writing reports; entering data.

4. Appoint a coordinator for volunteers. This person will be responsible for liaising with volunteers to ensure they are clear what is expected of them, when and where.This person would be the central information point for further queries, or for letting organisers know if a volunteer cannot do what they have undertaken to do.

5. Provide a budget for volunteer work which includes costs of background briefing papers, handouts, transport, accommodation, phonecalls made from home, and other out-of-pocket costs incurred by volunteers.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Staff

Telephones

Computers/printing

Trainers in the skills or knowledge needed by volunteers

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Low

Low (traditional)

US Department of Transport Federal Highway Administration (1997) Speakers Bureaus and Public Involvement Volunteers in Public Involvement Techniques for Transportation Decision-Making - . (accessed in 2004).

Public Meeting

A meeting is a coming together of people for a specific purpose. The meeting can involve a large number of people, or a smaller (under 10) number of people who focus on a specific problem or purpose. Meetings generally have a facilitator who encourages two-way communication, and a recorder who records suggestions and issues that are revealed at the meeting. Public meetings provide a good focal point for media interest in an event, and photos can provide a visual indicator or levels of interest and the range of people who attended. Public meetings are often the springboard for a movement or for the establishment of a common-interest group which will continue to act on the issues raised and suggestions made.Public meetings are familiar, established ways for people to come together to express their opinions, hear a public speaker, or plan a strategy. They can build a feeling of community and attendance levels provide an indicator of the level of interest within a community on a particular issue. smaller focus group meetings can be made up of people with common concerns who may not feel confident speaking up in a larger public gathering (for example, women, those who speak English as a second language, Indigenous groups). In a separate venue, these people can speak comfortably together, share common issues and a common purpose. The findings from focus group meetings can be presented to larger group meetings, giving a `voice` to those in the community who are unable to speak up in a larger meeting

- Allows the involvement and input of a wide range of people

- Can develop consensus for action on complex issues that affect the broad community.

- Disseminates detailed information and decisions throughout the community.

- Provides opportunities for exploring alternative strategies and building consensus.

- Unless well facilitated, those perceived as having power within the community, or those who are most articulate and domineering in their verbal style can dominate the meeting.

- Participants may not come from a broad enough range to represent the entire community

- Organisers must be aware of potential conflicts.

- Community members may not be willing to work together.

- May not achieve consensus.

- Can be time and labour intensive.

1. Establish why you need to consult the community; do not hold a public meeting or consult unnecessarily; this wastes people`s time, and may create disinterest for the future.

2. Consider the circumstances of the community and the issues.

3. Schedule a series of meetings. A suggested series follows:

Meeting 1

Introduce project and key personnel

Supply project information

Allow the community to ask questions and identify issues of concern

Provide contact pointsIdentify groups with specific concerns for targeted consultation

Meeting 2

Break between meetings allows participants to consider views and concerns

Reintroduce project

Activate good listening skills

Clarification and expansion of issues

Meeting 3

Information and feedback on how issues and concerns are being met

Presentation at the conclusion of a project or make recommendations for the community`s consideration

Discuss ongoing participation in the process

4. Publicise and advertise the meeting

Advertise weekly in local media

5. Book a venue and arrange catering with flexibility as to numbers as attendance is difficult to predict

Venue should be neutral territory

Provide no alcohol.

Provide refreshments at the conclusion of the meeting

6. Timing: Conduct the meeting at a time where the largest number of participants can attend

7. Inform participants of Chairperson Facilitator Guest speakers

8. Determine the conduct of the meeting:

work closely with the chair

General format is presentation followed by question time

Present agenda

Field questions

Record comments

9. Considerations

Widely advise the ways feedback from the community is being incorporated into the project Avoid allowing the meeting to be taken over by a vocal community

Be prepared to change tack during the meeting

Cater for people with disabilities or from non-english speaking backgrounds

Never lose your temper

Set up early

Large (more than 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector

Projection screen

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Medium

Low

Low (traditional)

Wilcox, David (1994) The Guide to Effective Participation (accessed 2004).

Questionnaires and Responses

Questionnaires are the basic research tool used to collect information, and are usually developed and tested to ensure that they are easily understood and will collect the information required. Questionnaires ensure that exactly the same questions are presented to each person surveyed, and this helps with the reliability of the results. Questionnaires can be delivered via face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, self-complete forms, mail outs or on-line. Questionnaires can be distributed by email as well as posted or faxed. Response sheets can be collected at a workshop, or can be picked up at a workshop and mailed back. These can also be mailed out in ways that reduce postage costs, when they are included in routine mail-outs such as the distribution of fact sheets or accounts.

- Less personal than interviewing, their anonymity can encourage more honest answers.

- Useful to generate both qualitative and quantitative data.

- Works well to reach respondents who are widely scattered, or live considerable distances away.

- Provides information from those unlikely to attend meetings and workshops.

- Permits expansion of the mail list.

- Can be used for statistical validation.

- Allows results to be extrapolated by subgroups.

- Allows the respondent to fill out at a convenient time.

- More economical and less labour intensive than interviews and telephone surveys as they provide larger samples for lower total costs.

- low response rates can bias the results. Can involve follow up telephone calls and letters to encourage returns.

- Needs a return envelope/freepost address to encourage participation.

- Depends on a high degree of literacy.

- Wording of questions needs to be unambiguous to avoid bias, and should be pre-tested on a sample audience to ensure that you receive the information you desire.

1. Draft questions. Keep as short as possible.

2. Trial questions with a small sample (pilot group) to determine whether they are unbiased, straightforward and not open to misinterpretation.

3. Indicate the purpose of the questionnaire at outset

4. Include qualitative data such as age, sex, address, education etc. to allow for further extrapolation of the results.

5. Include any new names/addresses in the mailing list.

6. Send out with printed information materials.

7. If the budget allows, provide free mail reply (stamped addressed envelope; freepost mailbox, etcetera) to improve responses.

8. Document responses as part of the public involvement process.

Large (more than 30)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Exchange Techniques

Staff or volunteers

Access to expertise in developing questionnaires

small trial group for trialling questionnaire and ensuring that the data you collect is the data you are seeking.

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Low

Low (traditional)

US Department of transport (2002) Public Involvement Techniques for Transportation Decision-Making (accessed in 2004).

Role Plays

An activity where participants take on designated roles and act out characters according to predetermined situations, followed by an evaluation of the activity. People may choose from a range of set roles, for example, local council environment planner, environmentalist, surfrider, developer, natural resource manager and Chamber of Commerce member. By getting people to take on a role that may be unfamiliar to them, this process enhances understanding of the issue from another perspective. However, role-playing requires skilled facilitation, and everyone must be `de-briefed` and clearly directed to step out of role and return to their own persona before leaving the exercise, or confusion can ensue.highly useful as an ice breaker, to get people talking and interacting with one another about the issue, and also to gain some empathy for the position of other stakeholders.Role playing can involve risks. A person must try to understand another`s point of view to the extent that they can act in ways that are appropriate and recognisable.

- Great as an ice-breaker.

- Leads to greater understanding of issues.

- Can be a fun activity that encourages team building within the participation program.

- Good for scoping the extent of conflicts.

- People may have little appreciation of others positions.

- Can insult unless treated in a light hearted manner.

- Participants often require encouragement to take on another’s role.

- Requires clear direction that the role-playing is now over, and ensure that everyone knows that they are now speaking for themselves alone, or confusion can ensue.

- Having badges or costumes that are taken off at the end of the role-play can help this process.

- Needs a skilled facilitator with experience of role playing and debriefing.

1. Determine all the agencies or individuals that are likely to influence a particular issue (e.g. commercial organisations, government agencies, non-government organisations, community `personalities`), and develop badges, lists or costumes to develop a number of roles to make for interesting interactions.

2. Assign roles. Generally, greatest success occurs when people opposed to one another take on each other`s roles, thus allowing them to put themselves into the other person`s position. (This works best when there is some visual indicator or the role being played, e.g. a cap or badge).

3. Describe a scenario that introduces the issue in a non-threatening way. This technique can cause conflict when used for a contentious issue, so ensure that trained facilitators are available to defuse any confrontations and address the conflict in more constructive ways.

4. Treat the activity as a lighthearted exercise and encourage participation by indicating the lack of consequence from the activity.

5. The person playing the role may be advised by someone with experience in the role they are playing (for example, a resident who is playing a natural resource manager may be advised by someone experienced in management in that area). Role plays are then adlibbed, based on the understanding of the activities/attitudes of the person whose role they are taking.

6. Facilitate the role play to maximize understanding of other`s positions. Hence, ask participants why they take a position, or express a certain opinion, while in role.

7 .Follow up the activity with a debriefing session that seeks to clarify the variety of potential positions as a precurser to the actual participation process.

8 .Make clear the point at which the role play is over: Allow people to say any last things `in role`, then make it clear that when they return to their own seat they return to being themselves.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Recorders

Gophers

Audio and visual recording and amplification

Printed public information materials

Response sheets

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Furniture

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Medium

Medium (some new elements)

International Association for Public Participation Toolbox (accessed in 2004)

Samoan Circles

The Samoan circle is a leaderless meeting intended to help negotiations in controversial issues. While there is no `leader`, a professional facilitator can welcome participants and explain the seating arrangements, `rules, timelines and the process. As with the Fishbowl process, the Samoan circle has people seated in a circle within a circle, however only those in the inner circle are allowed to speak. The inner circle should represent all the different viewpoints present, and all others must remain silent. The process offers others a chance to speak only if they join the `inner circle`.

- Works best with controversial issues.

- Can avoid severe polarisation.

- Allows a large number of people to be involved in discussing a controversial issue.

- Dialogues can stall or become monopolised.

- Observers may become frustrated with their passive role.

1. Set room up with centre table surrounded by concentric circles of chairs.

2. Arrange roving microphones.

3. Select one or two representatives for each of the views present to constitute the core of the Samoan Circle.

4. Seat these people in a semi-circle surrounded by two-four open chairs.

5. Clarify that once the discussion begins, the facilitator may withdraw and watch as a silent observer or facilitate the discussion.

6. Before the discussion begins, arrange for the facilitator to announce the rules and ask for agreement from all:

- people in the larger group can listen, but there is no talking, booing, hissing or clapping.

- anyone from the larger group who wishes to join the conversation may do so by coming forward at any time and taking one of the `open chairs` on either end of the semi-circle.

7. Indicate that the discussion may begin with a brief statement from each representative and then proceeds as a conversation. Representatives discuss issues with each other as the larger group listens.

8. Record viewpoints expressed and commonalities identified, and agreements or outcomes reached.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Exchange Techniques

Suitable venue to take central table with concentric circles

Roving microphones

Staff

Facilitators

Recorders

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Low

Low (traditional)

International Association for Public Participation Toolbox (accessed in 2004)

Scenario Testing

`Scenarios are a way of developing alternative futures based on different combinations of assumptions, facts and trends, and area where more understanding is needed for your particular scenario project. They are called `scenarios` because they are like `scenes` in the theatre - a series of differing views or presentations of the same general topic. Once you see several scenarios at the same time, you better understand your options or possibilities.`

- Avoids having to model complex situations.

- Allows you to alter combinations and play `what if` games (e.g. change the assumption and see what happens).

- Provides understanding of events and possible combinations

- Agreement may not be reached on what is the `right` scenario to include (if the questions are controversial).

- Scenarios must be recognised as possibilities only, not firm predictions

1. Invite participants who have knowledge of, or are affected by, the proposal or issue of interest.

2. Invite participants to identify the underlying paradigms or unwritten laws of change; trends or driving forces and collect into general categories (economy, socio/political, etcetera); and wildcards or uncertainties.

3 .Consider how these might affect a situation, either singly or in combination, using these steps:

- review the big picture

- review general approaches to future studies

- identify what you know and what you don`t know

- select possible paradigm shifts and use them as an overall guide

- cluster trends and see which driving forces are most relevant to your scenario

4. Create alternative scenarios (similar to alternate scenes in a play) by mixing wildcards with trends and driving forces; keep the number of scenarios small (four is ideal because it avoids the `either` `or` choice of two, and the good/bad/medium choice of three).

5 .Write a brief report that states assumptions and future framework; provides observations and conclusions; gives a range of possibilities, and focuses on the next steps coming out of this study. Each scenario should be about one page.

Large (more than 30)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Engagement of experts

Recorders

Gophers

Artists

Photographer and other

Audio and visual recording and amplification

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector

Projection screen

Printed public information materials

Response sheets

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Furniture

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Medium

Low

High (innovative)

Caldwell, R. (2001) Tutorial 2: Building Scenarios. Arizona University (accessed in 2004).

Search Conference

Search conferences emphasise face-to-face interaction among stakeholders to create a new community. The process of meeting and discussion engenders new ideas. The venue and seating plan of the conference are designed to engender conversation and good relationship building.Search conferences have been used to help organisations to merge when they have differing visions and to bring together trade experts to develop curricula based on their tradecraft and skills. In a community setting, search conferences have allowed `ordinary` citizens to use their local knowledge in developing plans for economically depressed regions. Search conferences are held over one or more full days, during which participants explore ambiguity and difference in the interests of forwarding research and action.

- Develops creative and achievable strategies.

- Produces collaborative and participative approaches.

- Generates consensus.

- Develops shared values.

- Develops commitment to strategies formulated.

- Combines formulation and implementation.

- Integrates cultural, regional and/or value differences.

- Achieves completion of a task in two or three days (and sometimes evenings) that would take months if left to specialized analysts and experts

- Focus is on learning, not teaching.

- Conflict and differences are acknowledged, but not dealt with.

- Equal status of participants is supported.

- Personal commitment and ownership are emphasized.

- Self-managing teams are used.

- Shared meaning is developed.

- Can be logistically challenging.

- Can be time consuming (2-3 days).

Search conferences have three broad stages: pre-planning; the conference; and implementation.

1. First Planning Session: (6-8 hours) Determine whether you a Search Conference will meet your needs. If it will, decide on the conference themes and purpose, arrange a venue and draw up an invitation list.

2. Secure keynote speakers. Their presence should break the ice and set the flavour of the event, but not dominate it.

3. Second Planning Session: (3-4 hours) This serves as a progress `check-in` and a time to redirect efforts if necessary. Questions are answered and all conference plans are finalized. It is best to hold this session with the facilitator present, however, when travel costs are a major concern it is possible to substitute an extensive telephone conference call between the planning group and the facilitator.

1. First Planning Session: (6-8 hours) Determine whether you a Search Conference will meet your needs. If it will, decide on the conference themes and purpose, arrange a venue and draw up an invitation list.

2. Secure keynote speakers. Their presence should break the ice and set the flavour of the event, but not dominate it.

3. Second Planning Session: (3-4 hours) This serves as a progress `check-in` and a time to redirect efforts if necessary. Questions are answered and all conference plans are finalized. It is best to hold this session with the facilitator present, however, when travel costs are a major concern it is possible to substitute an extensive telephone conference call between the planning group and the facilitator.

4. The Search Conference: (One full day. or more). The participants will share information, discuss issues, and complete a series of small and large group tasks, which culminate in a strategic goal setting and action planning session. These tasks should encompass the following:

- Analyse the environment (background, possible future, what is working/not working)

- Analyse the`SYSTEM`, what routines, practices, restrictions, rules and structures influence the present known community issues, the community itself and its environment.

- Plan how our system can best flourish, within our environment. (This should develop realistic action plans engendered through new understandings.)

4. The Search Conference: (One full day. or more). The participants will share information, discuss issues, and complete a series of small and large group tasks, which culminate in a strategic goal setting and action planning session. These tasks should encompass the following:

- Analyse the environment (background, possible future, what is working/not working)

- Analyse the`SYSTEM`, what routines, practices, restrictions, rules and structures influence the present known community issues, the community itself and its environment.

- Plan how our system can best flourish, within our environment. (This should develop realistic action plans engendered through new understandings.)

5. Follow-up Session(s): This is a time to celebrate individual and group successes. Evaluate the ultimate success of the conference by how easily the action plans can be implemented. Progress is assessed and plans are modified as needed.

6. People are give roles and deadlines set.

7. The action plans are put into practice.

5. Follow-up Session(s): This is a time to celebrate individual and group successes. Evaluate the ultimate success of the conference by how easily the action plans can be implemented. Progress is assessed and plans are modified as needed.

6. People are give roles and deadlines set.

7. The action plans are put into practice.

Large (more than 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Engagement of experts

Recorders

Gophers

Artists/photographer

Audiovisual recording equipment and amplification

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector/screen

Printed public information sheets

Response sheets

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Furniture

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Medium

High

High (innovative)

Emery M. and Purser, R., (1996) The Search Conference: A powerful method for planned organizational change and community action, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.

Shopfronts

Shop fronts (or site offices) are attempts to improve participation in programs by bringing a participatory venue into a heavily used public area, such as a main street or shopping centre. They are designed to allow people to drop in at their convenience and therefore display materials are usually provided along with project staff to answer questions. They have a relaxed atmosphere and can act as a semi-permanent meeting place / kitchen table discussion forum so providing refreshments is recommended. Shop fronts run for the duration of a participation program, While many of the objectives and outcomes of shopfronts are similar to those of an open house, an open house is usually at an existing site or establishment, whereas shopfronts can be set up wherever they will attract the target audience. This may be in the main street, in a shopping centre, or in accommodation that is temporarily rented for the occasion.

- To access participants who are not generally interested in formal participation programs

- To improve public relations

- For convenience

- To facilitate informal participation·

- To locate project stakeholders

- Community members may not consider this a legitimate avenue to have a say.

- The shopfronts can be easily targeted by activists.

1. Select a centralized venue that has a lot of passer-by traffic. Usually owners of vacant shops are very happy to lease over short periods of time.

2. Select staff/volunteers with strong public relations skills and knowledge of the project and participatory processes (i.e.who will encourage people to chat and discuss issues and be aware of offering different feedback options).

3. Provide display materials, printed public information materials, technical reports, maps, photographs etc. that will be provide all sectors of the community with a means to understand the issues or proposals.

4 .Advertise the variety of opportunities for public participation throughout the participation program.

5. Provide a variety of opportunities for feedback, including speaking person-to-person, filling in feedback sheets and contacting email/website addresses.

6. Provide adequate seating and consider visitors` comfort (drinks, toilets, childcare, accessibility).

7. Staff should record visits to document participation process and to note issues, concerns and suggestions and report these to the organisation/organisers.

Large (more than 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Facilitators

Recorders

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector

Projection screen

Printed public information materials

Response sheets

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Furniture

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Medium

Medium (some new elements)

Simulation (electronically generated)

Simulations attempt to display the outcomes of particular choices through changing the inputs to a computer model that simulates the likely outcomes of a system with choices. Simulation can also be set up as games, for example, the Quest Envision programs that encourage community participation through games where they make choices, are then given feedback on the consequences of those choices.`This participation method uses mathematical relationships to explain a system [for example, the regulations to do with vegetation clearing and proposed changes to legislation], and then when it is understood, extrapolations into the future can be made. The overriding consideration is that you `know and understand` the system you are trying to model. In relatively simple systems, or those that have been used a long time and have many revisions from experience (like current economic forecasting), the relationships can be modelled fairly accurately.Two major components are 1) knowing the relationships relative to what event is connected to what other event(s); and 2) the relative magnitude of that relationship. In anything but a very simple model, the interactions and feedback loops (results of one step affect an earlier step) are VERY difficult to determine. This is especially true for models that predict more than a few years. For complex situations, it is nearly impossible to model accurately both the relationships and their magnitude when appropriate feedback loops are considered.

- Gives better results, even with limitations, when you cannot make simple extrapolations or modify trends or non-linear processes.

- Offers the option to change the conditions and see what would happen under a variety of assumptions. The latter are `what if` options, and you learn a great deal about the subject and its future possibilities by determining which changes cause what type (and how big) of an effect.(Adapted from: Seminar on Futures Techniques

- Model results are only as good as the model and the assumptions on which it is based.

- Very expensive to set up, including data for validation.

- Assumes an understanding of all variables.

- Need trained programmers and technical staff.

1. Collect background information on issue or scenario.

2. Determine as many factors and influences as possible, and possible/probable outcomes of changes.

3. With the assistance of programmers, set up model to allow simulations.

4. Invite representatives of relevant groups to view and discuss the scenarios.

5. Discuss understanding and insights gained.

6. If relevant, develop future planning options based on preferred scenarios.

Large (more than 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Facilitators

Recorders

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector

Projection screen

Printed public information materials

Response sheets

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Furniture

Industry

Government

Large (more than 12)

High

High (innovative)

Hasell, M.J. (1987) Community Design and gaming/simulation: Comparison of Communication Techniques for Participatory Design Session. Simulations and Games 18 March: 82-115.

Sketch Interviews

A visualisation technique applicable to planning, design and problem solving. This tool provides for the visual articulation of ideas facilitated through drawings and sketches. Sketch interviewing allows the participant to articulate ideas that are not easily expressed through words and the interaction between facilitator and participant allows for the refinement and modification of the ideas visually to avoid misinterpretation. Sketch interviews can be used in conjunction with surveys.

- highly applicable to planning and design or where visual communication using images is preferred to text oriented consultation.

- Where participants are uncomfortable in traditional participation forums.

- Where participants are more comfortable in communicating ideas visually.

- Flexibility in venue: can be conducted on-site or any number of venues.

- Facilitators require some drawing/sketching ability and the interpersonal skills to work closely with participants.

- Limitations to the number of participants given the need for one on one or small group interactions.

- Costly and time consuming if large numbers of facilitators and participants are required.

- Need to articulate the purpose of the exercise and the role of the sketches.

- Suggested that catering be supplied and an informal atmosphere is facilitated.

1. Publicise the sketch interviews through a number of publicity tools.

2. Arrange for facilitators with drawing (as well as interpersonal) skills to be present.

3. Schedule a meeting time on site or at a location convenient to the participants.

4. During interviews:

- Provide an overview of the purpose of the exercise.

- Describe the role of the sketches in the project or process.

- Provide catering and refreshments

- Conduct interviews one-on-one or in very small groups.

- Pin up all the sketches and have participants present their ideas to the larger group to maintain a sense of ownership.

- Ask the group: `Where to from here?`; describe opportunities for ongoing involvement or where the sketches are being used in the consultation process or project.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Small (1 to 10)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Facilitators

Recorders

Artists

Photographer

Audio and visual recording and amplification

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Furniture

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Low

High (innovative)

Low (traditional)

Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is an approach for locating information-rich key informants. Using this approach, a few potential respondents are contacted and asked whether they know of anybody with the characteristics that you are looking for in your research. For example, if you wanted to interview a sample of vegetarians / cyclists / people with a particular disability / people who support a particular political party etc., your initial contacts may well have knowledge (e.g. through a support group) of others. Snowball sampling is not a stand-alone tool; the tool is a way of selecting participants and then using other tools, such as interviews or surveys. Having identified those with the skills and/or knowledge or characteristics you require, you would then approach these people to invite them to participate in a community consultation process.

- Helps to determine stakeholders.

- Increases the number of participants in process.

- Builds on resources of existing networks.

- Determines stakeholders unknown to you.

- Choice of initial contacts is most important.

- Participation process should be drafted prior to the sampling to encourage participation from potential contacts.

1. Draft up a participation program (likely to be subject to change, but indicative).

2. Approach stakeholders and ask for contacts.

3. Gain contacts and ask them to participate.

4. Community issues groups may emerge that can be included in the participation program

5. Continue the snowballing with contacts to gain more stakeholders if necessary.

6. Ensure a diversity of contacts by widening the profile of persons involved in the snowballing exercise.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Exchange Techniques

Staff

Telephones

Recording materials (notebooks, audiotapes)

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Low

Medium

Low (traditional)

Speakouts

A speak out is an event where agroup of people give testimony about a particular issue. The people speaking can be `experts` giving factual information to educate the audience and media, or they can be lay people who are personally affected by the issue talking about their lives, or a combination of both. Speak outs/Soapboxes can be organised events or events that are arranged by participants. They are a venue for public comment and debate and are usually informal with a limited agenda. Formally organised Speakouts/Soapboxes should be relaxed and should not attempt to steer a discussion and hence set an agenda.

- Useful when conflicting viewpoints exist.

- Useful when debate is required to refine understanding of issues.

- Useful when a particular group or individuals are affected by a project.

- Can educate.

- Allows organisers to meet people and develop networks.

- Can be difficult to direct (often speak outs occur because groups feel their voices are not being heard).

- Popular with activists, and may not have a balance of opinions.

- The discussion may be difficult to incorporate into a formalized consultation program.

1. Identify the issue of interest.

2. Book venue and invite experts.

3. Publicise `speak out` / `Soapbox`.

4. Take care of legal and other responsibilities.

5. Hire facilitator.

6. Organise recorders.

7. Explain time limits to each speaker (five minutes maximum).

8. After the event, prepare statement/report for media and authorities.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Facilitators

Recorders and other Audio and visual recording and amplification

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector

Projection screen

Printed public information materials

Response sheets

Furniture

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Medium

Low

Low (traditional)

ActUp New York. Speak Outs (accessed in 2004).

Stakeholder Analysis

Stakeholder analysis is a process of discovering the broadest possible range of people who will be affected by, or are interested in, proposed changes or a community issue. It is a cyclic process of surveys, interviews, feedback and finetuning that allows for community consultation that includes many stakeholder groups whose opinions might otherwise be overlooked. As well, through the cyclic process of opinion surveys and feedback, this provides a mechanism for increasing stakeholder awareness and knowledge in relation to an issue or proposal.Through this process, groups can discover common interests that allow strategic alliances to be formed.

- Goes beyond the conventional ideas of who the stakeholders are to empower those who may otherwise be overlooked.

- Can be used to ensure that as few of the affected stakeholder groups as possible are overlooked in the opinion polling and planning processes.

- Can serve an environmental education role, increasing knowledge and awareness of an issue.

- Can increase social capital in a community or group by increasing people`s capacity to contribute to the planning and decision-making processes.

- May reveal links and commonalities among groups that can lead to strategic alliances.

- Can be expensive to undertake on a large scale.

- Needs to cast a wide net to ensure that it can include unexpected and unpredicted connections between groups and issues.

1. Publicise a community issue and invite comment or submissions.

2. Prepare survey material that provides demographic data and inquires about the ways in which the issue affects the respondent.

3. Survey a wide cross-section of people living in a relevant geographic region (randomly selected).

4. Summarise the findings and plan a public meeting to give feedback to the largest possible number of the interviewees.

5. Present the findings at a public meeting, and invite comment and clarification.

6. Organise to have sufficient expertise at this meeting to answer most questions that are likely to arise.

7. As a result of this feedback, modify the findings and include any further demographics or groups that have been discovered through the process.

8. Send back the findings to all previous interviewees, together with furthe questions arising from the public meeting.

9. Provide feedback to those planning or making decisions about the issue. This process allows an ongoing finetuning of the groups that are surveyed, and of the community`s opinions. Also, this provides a process of education that increases community awareness of the issue, and answers their questions throughout the process.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Staff

Surveys

Facilitator

Venue for report

back meetings

Computer database to collate responses

Publicity

Whiteboards or computer records

Telephones for surveys

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Medium

High

High (innovative)

Study Circles

The study circle is a simple process for small-group deliberation. For example, a study circle might be formed to discover more about a specific interest, e.g. the vegetation in a particular area, or more about a process e.g. community involvement in water quality monitoring.A study circle comprises 10-15 people who meet regularly over a period of weeks or months to address a critical public issue in a democratic and collaborative way. A study circle is facilitated by a person/facilitator who is there not to act as an expert on the issue, but to serve the group by keeping the discussion focused, helping the group consider a variety of views, and process difficult questions.A study circle examines many perspectives. The way in which study circle facilitators are trained and discussion materials are written gives everyone `a home in the conversation,` and helps the group deliberate on the various views and explore areas of common ground. A study circle progresses from a session on personal experience (`how does the issue affect me?`) to sessions providing a broader perspective (`what are others saying about the issue?`) to a session on action (`what can we do about the issue here?`). Study circles can take place within organisations, such as schools, unions, or government agencies. Yet, they have their greatest reach and impact when organizations across a community work together to create large-scale programs. These community-wide programs engage large numbers of citizens in a community -- in some cases thousands -- in study circles on a public issue such as race relations, crime and violence, or an environmental education issue

- Allows citizens to gain ownership of the issues, discover a connection between personal experiences and public policies, and gain a deeper understanding of their own and others` perspectives and concerns.

- Since the dialogue does not promote one particular point of view or try to persuade people to take a specific action, potential coalition partners can usually find ways to work through ownership issues, mistrust, or genuine disagreement.

- Fosters new connections among community members that lead to new levels of community action.

- Can create new connections between citizens and government, both at an institutional level and at the level of parents and teachers, community members and social service providers, residents and police officers.

- Building a coalition that represents many points of view takes time and effort.

- This kind of coalition building for democratic participation requires leadership, a working knowledge of community dynamics, and a willingness to learn by trial and error.

1. Identify an issue of broad community concern. Some of the issues communities have started with include: race relations; crime and violence; understanding environmental impact statements; or exploring the issues involving proposed developments.

2. Let people start where they are. It must be clear from the outset that the dialogue is not just for conservatives, or for liberals, or for `the civic crowd,` or for any one group. By bringing personal stories and experiences into the discussions early on, the dialogue will naturally welcome people of all backgrounds and points of view.

3. Arrange a venue for study circles, and determine whether there will be one facilitator, or shared facilitation within the group.

4. For large, community-wide study groups, build a broad coalition to implement and sponsor the dialogue. Community members will get involved in the dialogue when people they know and respect make it clear that their participation is essential.

5. For small-scale study circles, an individual or group within a grassroots organisation (churches, neighbourhood associations, businesses, schools, and clubs) need only find a topic of community interest and invite people.

6. Aspects of the topic can be determined from one meeting to the next, depending on current issues or specific aspects of interest to the group.

7. Facilitators should try to move the group from the personal to seeing the issue within the wider systems at work within their community.

Medium (11 to 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Venue

Facilitator

Publicity

Background information

Food (can be `bring a plate` if not catered)

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Low

Medium (some new elements)

Study Circles Resource Center. (2000) Building Strong Neighborhoods: A Study Circle Guide for Public Dialogue and Community Problem Solving. Topsfield Foundation, Inc. USA.

Submissions

Submissions are intended to allow participants to respond to proposals or ideas in some detail. They are used widely in urban planning development decisions and are intended to allow interested parties to make detailed responses to development proposals in this context. They can be used in a broader context to allow the community to have their say or present their ideas in written detail. Submissions may be in the form of a letter, a short document or a substantial paper. They may include appendices and other supporting documents. The best submissions are those that provide reasons and justifications for specific comments.

- Allows a group to provide details of their position on an issue.

- Can satisfy statutory or legal requirements.

- Allows people to have a say.

- Review of written response submissions helps get a sense of the range of concerns of interested parties, their contact details and a mailing list for subsequent project information

- They are passive in nature. The communication is one way and there is no chance for discussion.

- They are mainly used by persons with a significant stake in a project,.

- Requires time and energy, often with short timelines, which may discourage under-resourced community groups.

- Communication is limited to the written form.

Is not well used as a participation tool.

With the advent of electronic submissions, avoid sending multiple submissions

1. Keep an alert for calls for submissions from government departments or other organisations responsible for management decisions in areas of direct concern to your community. Any individual or organisation can make a submission to a parliamentary committee.

2. When possible, designate a group to work on the submission and allow plenty of time to develop a well thought out, clearly argued statement of your position, with explanations and reasons for the attitudes and positions adopted.

3. Ensure your submission meets the terms of reference in the call for submission.

4 .Check the requested format (e.g. the Australian Government requests that submssions be printed on A4 paper; electronic submission on disc or CD-rom in Microsoft Word). In printed submissions, include a cover page with a title that clearly indicates what your submission is about, the full name of your organisation, and contact details (return address and telephone numbers). On the next page, include a brief summary of the main points in the submission. Submissions should be signed, and clearly indicate whether the individual is signing on behalf of an organisation, or submitting a personal opinion. Add any helpful documentation in an appendix.

5. If a request for submissions has a very short lead time, consider what you can do. One page with your key concerns (with explanations) and your preferred outcome, is better than no communication at all.

6. Ensure that submissions are delivered to the correct address and by the due date.

7. Request feedback on the submission process, and any decision and outcomes that result.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

Staff/volunteers

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Low

Medium

High

Low (traditional)

Surveys

Surveys are a method used to collect information from a specific population. Surveys are used to gauge the level of public information about an issue and provide a `snapshot` of attitudes and ideas at a particular time. They can be used to determine community attitudes or target a particular group. Surveys can be used to collect broad general information from or about a large audience or specific information from targeted groups. Surveys can seek information that can be quantitative (facts and figures) and/or qualitative (opinions and values). Surveys can use questionnaires to collect information, and these can be delivered through face-to-face interviews, self-completion written forms, telephone surveys, or electronic surveys. (See also Questionnaires and response sheets)For a well-conducted survey using a large, random sample, surveys are usually high cost. small-scale surveys using opportunistic sampling and volunteers can be relatively low cost, but may not produce results that can be generalised beyond the specific people sampled. Sampling so that you can generalise from your results to the general community, or a specific segment of the community, requires expert knowledge.

- Provides traceable data.

- Can serve an educational purpose.

- When properly constructed using goodsampling techniques, can reach a broad, representative public or targeted group.

- Can derive varied information from the results.

- Can help in future planning.

- Poorly constructed surveys produce poor results.

- Can be expensive if surveying a large audience.

- Care must be taken that wording of questions is unambiguous to prevent skewed results.

- Care is needed in sampling to make sure representative samples are taken.

- Surveys with tick boxes are the fastest and easiest to process, however, this limits the detail in the information collected.

- Can be seen as `counting heads` without necessarily telling you what is in them.

1. Find out what is already known, and what relevant surveys are being done or planned elsewhere. This will avoid duplication, and will help establish what you need to find out from your survey.

2. Talk to locals with strong views and local knowledge to sharpen the focus of the questions.

3. Survey writing is a skill that improves with practice and feedback, so seek expert advice on the pitfalls and requirements of survey writing, but rely on your own understanding of the issue or topic.

4. Preliminary investigations, e.g. focus groups or interviews with people on a `convenience` basis (outside the Town Hall, or in a shopping centre), can help to develop some of the issues/range of questions needed.

5. Determine how the information is to be obtained. Surveys can be done by asking people questions though the mail (see Questionnaires) or in personal interviews, or by a combination of methods.

6. Select your target audience. How will you sample them? What stratas of the society or organisation do you need to reach? How will you ensure that your survey gives a representation of the ideas of the group?

7. Draft the questionnaire or interview guide.

8. Trial this with a pilot study to ensure the answers will give you the information you wanted. (Check readability and clarity of questions).

9. Undertake the survey.

10. Collate and analyse the results.

11. Write a report and make available to those surveyed, to appropriate authorities, and to the media. If the report is lengthy and/or detailed, provide a synopsis of the key points.

Large (more than 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Staff/volunteers

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

Low

High

Medium

Low (traditional)

COSLA (1998). Focusing on Citizens: A Guide to Approaches and Methods (accessed in 2004).

Technical Assistance

Technical assistance is intended to provide the public with understanding complex issues and concepts. Publicizing the availability of technical assistance adds transparency and positive public relations to a public participation process. Often technical issues associated with a project are complex and stakeholders require one-on-one discussions to improve their understanding or gain information.

- Builds credibility and helps address public concerns.

- Can be effective as a conflict resolution technique where facts are clarified.

- Assists in the dissemination of information.

- Availability of resources can be limited.

- Technical experts may resent working with members of the community.

- Can be costly if outside experts are required to provide assistance

1. Advertise the name of the person providing technical assistance and their specialisation so the public can directly access the person (at predetermined times) and discuss the issue to improve understanding.

2. Brief staff and train in public consultation. They need to be polite, courteous and patient with all callers, regardless of their attitude or level of understanding.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Short (less than 6 weeks)

Information Providing Techniques

Suitably trained and knowledgeable staff

Publication facilities for reports/publications

Telephone/computer communications facilities.

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Individual

High

Low (traditional)

International Association for Public Participation Toolbox (accessed in 2004)

Technical Reports and Discussion Papers

Technical reports can outline research and policy findings, and can also be used to outline proposals. The most popular format is the discussion paper which, when combined with calls for submissions, can provide both information and public input. Consultation activities often require plain language documents that ensure technical information is presented comprehensively to a wide range of stakeholders. Technical reports are widely used for this purpose.

- Can provide a large number of people and organizations with information.

- Can be well thought out and prepared by those with considerable knowledge, interest and expertise in the issue.

- Provides for a thorough explanation of project issues.

- Some participants may find the reports too detailed.

- Can be costly to produce.

- Unless clearly written, can cause confusion.

- Generic nature may not make it relevant to local issues.

- Cannot ensure people have received, read or understood the information.

- Some people are not comfortable responding in writing.

- Time consuming to develop.

- Time allowances for people to prepare responses.

- Follow up consultation activities are generally required.

1. Consider the target audience, the agency or group budget, and production costs to determine the appropriate media via which to distribute the report (e.g. web, print or CD-Rom).

2. Prepare mailing list, in accordance with access to addresses and the scope of the mail-out.

3. Prepare the reports and discussion papers using simple language with an emphasis on visual communication.

4. Publicise the availability of the reports and/or discussion papers. If options are available, ask in what form (email, print, web address or CD-Rom) the person would like to receive the material.

5. Provide opportunities for submission of responses, that is, allow sufficient time for detailed consideration and development of responses, and provide a variety of ways for the responses to be delivered (post, drop off points, or email.)

6. Provide contact details for people with queries.

7. Advise on the opportunities for participation.

8. Collate and monitor responses.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Staff

Printed public information materials

Access to layout and publication expertise/facilities (reports produced for public access should be as brief as possible and include a balance of words/illustrations/maps).

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

High

Low (traditional)

Telephone Trees

Telephone trees allow a message to be conveyed by a number of people simultaneously when it is necessary to speak to a large number of people quickly about an event, issue or proposal. Telephone trees rely on each person on a committee undertaking to telephone a number of specific people; these may be those people who cannot be reached by email, or those who check their email infrequently but who need to know urgently. If one person calls 10 people, and each of those 10 call another 10 people, you can reach a hundred people with only two `rounds` of calls. Another way of organising a telephone tree is for each person to agree to telephone one person, and that person telephones one person, and so on, so that the message is spread sequentially, and no one person has to spend their time or money making a number of calls.An agreed message can then be spread quite quickly, and the expense and/or time involved in telephoning can be shared by all members of the committee.Electronic Phonetree products are now available commercially that provide organisations with the opportunity to deliver information to each member of a group with the push of a button. The telephone then automatically continues to dial and deliver the messages to each of the designated numbers. The main drawback is that the automated voice delivers the message regardless of who picks up the telephone, and there is no way of ensuring that the message gets to the intended recipient.As well, an electronic message option which allows a large number of telephones to be reached, is sending messages from one computer to a number of mobile telephones using text messaging. This is helpful where a team of workers all have mobile telephones out in the field.

- Allows a group to reach all those who need quick notification of an event or proposal, and to reach them quickly by telephone.

- Can allow a quick survey of people`s responses to the event or proposal at the same time that people are notified.

- Ensures that people have heard about an important event, because you have immediate confirmation when you speak to them.

- Phone trees can be useful in community emergencies, for example, closure of schools caused by severe weather conditions.

- This is more costly and time consuming than sending one email to an electronic mailing list.

- Telephoning may involve some time if the caller has to keep calling until they reach their targetted audience.

- Electronic phonetrees deliver their messages via an automated voice which may not reach the desired recipient.

1. Decide if the issue or proposal is important enough to require urgent notification.

2. If urgent notification is required, you might combine email mailing lists and telephone trees to reach all affected people.

3. Starting with a core group or organising committee, agree on who will telephone whom, and ensure that names and telephone numbers are correct.

4. If in a work situation, people may telephone from their own desks, or, in an emergency or polling situation, a bank of telephones may be set up with operators working through their agreed lists. If in a volunteer situation, volunteers may telephone from their own homes or from an organisation`s office or shopfront.

5. When all those on the list have been telephoned, and especially when it is vital that all those affected are reached, callers should report back to the organising committee who can take other steps to contact anyone who has not been able to be reached.

Large (more than 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Information Exchange Techniques

Staff or volunteers

Telephone

Agreed lists of names and phone numbers.

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Low

Low (traditional)

Visioning

Visioning exercises are used to define and help achieve a desirable future. Visioning exercises are regularly used in urban and strategic planning and allow participants to create images that can help to guide change in the city. The outcome of a visioning exercise is a long term plan, generally with a 20 to 30 year horizon. Visioning exercises also provide a frame for a strategy for the achievement of the vision. Alternatively, some visioning tools may be used to promote thought and encourage discussion of future land use and planning options, without the need to create a future orientated document.

- Use when integration between issues is required.

- Use when a wide variety of ideas should be heard

- Use when a range of potential solutions are needed.

- Visioning encourages participation for developing a long-range plan.

- Visioning is an integrated approach to policy-making. With overall goals in view, it helps avoid piecemeal and reactionary approaches to addressing problems.

- Visioning uses participation as a source of ideas in the establishment of long-range policy. It draws upon deeply-held feelings about overall directions of public agencies to solicit opinions about the future.

- When completed, visioning presents a democratically-derived consensus.

- Can be used to assess willingness to pay to preserve specific environmental attributes or willingness to accept the loss of these attributes.

- Can involve a broad range of participants (in demographic terms).

- Organisation of the visioning exercise can be costly.

- Vision can be difficult to transfer into strategy and policy

1. In a typical visioning exercise a facilitator asks participants to close their eyes and imagine they are walking along their shoreline as they would like to see it in 15 years. What do they see? What do the buildings look like? Where do people gather? How do they make decisions? What are they eating? Where are they working? How are they travelling? What is happening on the street? Where is the centre of the neighbourhood? How does greenspace and water fit into the picture? What do you see when you walk around after dark?

2. People record their visions in written or pictorial form; in diagrams, sketches, models, photographic montages, and in written briefs. Sometimes a professional illustrator helps turn mental images into drawings of the city that people can extend and modify.

Large (more than 30)

Long (more than 6 months)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Exchange Techniques

Recorders

Resources for group participation (paper/pens/tables/chairs)

Food

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Low

Medium

High

High (innovative)

Vancouver Citizens Committee and Dobson, Charles: The Citizens Handbook (accessed in 2004).

Websites

World wide web sites that contain project information, announcements and documents can use various media formats. The array of computer software and graphics packages and capacity of the web as a publicity tool and information source and forum for public input or electronic democracy is expanding, increasing the application of this participatory tool. Web sites are particularly useful for people in remote areas accessing project information and are more effective than information repositories in this regard. As well, websites make ideal community noticeboards for small organisations and provide sources for interaction when they invite feedback and provide email addresses or chat options. They are readily updateable and can be used to dispatch information with relative ease. The web is an emerging consultation tool and both its application and number of users continue to expand.

- Can provide publicity, information and limited public input

- Capable of reaching very large numbers with enormous amounts of information

- Offers a low cost way of distributing larger documents

- Offers a highly accessible forum for posting project updates

- Many people still cannot access the web

- Many people are still not web literate

- Its success as a participatory tool is still relatively unknown

- Information overload and poor design can prevent people from finding what they need

1. Contact a web designer, or find someone within the organisation with web design skills.

2. Discuss the `architecture`, all the levels of information, links and illustrations available and necessary to inform and engage the user.

3. Do some background research, web-surfing in your chosen area or field. Discover what works well on other websites, what they cover, what they omit, and use this information to improve your own website.

4. Trial the website before releasing it to the public. A bad experience with a website can mean people do not return. Ensure all links are working, and that the material scrolls smoothly with minimum delays.

5. Launch the website with suitable coverage in the media, in newsletters, and in a public forum

6. Ensure that you have alternative communication options for those who are not web-literate or do not have access to the web.

7. Place the website address on all correspondence and other printed material from the organisation.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Providing Techniques

Staff

internet access

web design skills

Industry

Government

Community

Medium (2 to 12)

Individual

High

Medium

Low (traditional)

International Association for Public Participation Toolbox (accessed in 2004)

Workshops

A structured forum where people are invited to work together in a group (or groups) on a common problem or task. The goals are to resolve issues and build consensus for action, rather than provide information and answer people`s questions.If the workshop is intended as a community event focusing on a community issue, the selection of participants is determined by knowledge, expertise or by selecting a cross-section of views. Alternatively, workshops can be organised to target particular groups, e.g. young people, or women.Workshops require a facilitator who is able to engage all participants in the discussion. Workshops are a participatory tool that is best used with smaller numbers of participants.

- Excellent for discussion on criteria or analysis of alternatives.

- Fosters small group or one-on-one communication.

- Offers a choice of team members to answer difficult questions.

- Builds ownership and credibility for the outcomes.

- Maximises feedback obtained from participants.

- Excellent for discussion on criteria or analysis of alternatives

- Fosters small group or one-on-one communication

- Ability to draw on other team members to answer difficult questions

- Builds credibility

- Maximised feedback obtained from participants

- Fosters public ownership in solving the problem

- Hostile participants may resist what they may perceive as the `divide and conquer` strategy of breaking into small groups

- Facilitators need to know how they will use the public input before they begin the workshop.

- Several small group facilitators are usually needed.

Large (more than 30)

Medium (11 to 30)

Small (1 to 10)

Medium (6 weeks to 6 months)

Information Exchange Techniques

Publicity

Venue rental

Catering

Staffing

Engagement of moderator/facilitator

Engagement of experts

Recorders

Gophers

Artists/photographer

Audiovisual recording equipment and amplification

Overhead projectors

Data projectors

Video

Slide projector/screen

Printed public information sheets

Response sheets

Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, etc.)

Furniture

Industry

Government

Community

Large (more than 12)

Medium (2 to 12)

Low

Medium

High

Low (traditional)

International Association for Public Participation Toolbox (accessed in 2004)